BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Cellular function requires coordination between different organelles and metabolic cues. Mitochondria and lysosomes are essential for cellular metabolism as major contributors of chemical energy and building blocks. It is therefore pivotal for cellular function to coordinate the metabolic roles of mitochondria and lysosomes. However, these organelles do more than metabolism, given their function as fundamental signaling platforms in the cell that regulate many key processes such as autophagy, proliferation, and cell death. Mechanisms of crosstalk between mitochondria and lysosomes are discussed, both under physiological conditions and in diseases that affect these organelles.

背景与目标： : 细胞功能需要不同细胞器和代谢线索之间的协调。线粒体和溶酶体对于细胞代谢至关重要，是化学能和组成部分的主要贡献者。因此，协调线粒体和溶酶体的代谢作用对于细胞功能至关重要。然而，这些细胞器不仅仅是代谢，因为它们作为细胞中的基本信号平台，调节许多关键过程，如自噬、增殖和细胞死亡。讨论了在生理条件下和影响这些细胞器的疾病中线粒体和溶酶体之间的串扰机制。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Limbic epilepsy is a chronic condition associated with a broad zone of seizure onset and pathology. Studies have focused mainly on the hippocampus, but there are indications that changes occur in other regions of the limbic system. This study used in vitro intracellular recording and histology to examine alterations to the physiology and anatomy of the basal nucleus of the amygdala in a rat model of chronic limbic epilepsy characterized by spontaneously recurring seizures. Epileptic pyramidal neuron responses evoked by stria terminalis stimulation revealed hyperexcitability characterized by multiple action potential bursts and no evident inhibitory potentials. In contrast, no hyperexcitability was observed in amygdalar neurons from kindled (included as a control for seizure activity) or control rats. Blockade of ionotropic glutamate receptors unmasked inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in epileptic pyramidal neurons. Control, kindled and epileptic inhibitory potentials were predominantly biphasic, with fast and slow components, but a few cells exhibited only the fast component (2/12 in controls, 0/3 in kindled, 3/10 in epileptic). Epileptic fast inhibitory potentials had a more rapid onset and shorter duration than control and kindled. Approximately 40% of control neurons exhibited spontaneous inhibitory potentials; no spontaneous inhibitory potentials were observed in neurons from kindled or epileptic rats. A preliminary histological examination revealed no gross alterations in the basal amygdala from epileptic animals. These results extend previous findings from this laboratory that hyperexcitability is found in multiple epileptic limbic regions and may be secondary to multiple alterations in excitatory and inhibitory efficacy. Because there were no differences between control and kindled animals, the changes observed in the epileptic animals are unlikely to be secondary to recurrent seizures.

背景与目标： : 边缘癫痫是一种慢性疾病，与癫痫发作和病理的广泛区域相关。研究主要集中在海马体上，但有迹象表明边缘系统的其他区域也发生了变化。这项研究使用体外细胞内记录和组织学检查了以自发性癫痫为特征的慢性边缘癫痫大鼠模型中杏仁核基底核的生理和解剖学变化。纹状体刺激引起的癫痫锥体神经元反应显示出过度兴奋，其特征是多动作电位爆发，没有明显的抑制电位。相反，在点燃的杏仁核神经元 (包括作为癫痫发作活动的对照) 或对照大鼠中未观察到过度兴奋。离子型谷氨酸受体的阻断揭示了癫痫锥体神经元的抑制性突触后电位。对照，点燃和癫痫抑制电位主要是双相的，具有快速和缓慢成分，但少数细胞仅表现出快速成分 (对照2/12，点燃0/3，癫痫3/10)。与对照和点燃相比，癫痫快速抑制电位的发作更快，持续时间更短。大约40% 的对照神经元表现出自发抑制电位; 在点燃或癫痫大鼠的神经元中未观察到自发抑制电位。初步的组织学检查显示，癫痫动物的基底杏仁核没有明显改变。这些结果扩展了该实验室先前的发现，即在多个癫痫边缘区域发现了过度兴奋，并且可能继发于兴奋性和抑制性功效的多种改变。由于对照动物和点燃动物之间没有差异，因此在癫痫动物中观察到的变化不太可能继发于反复发作。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The stoichiometric limit to the biomass yield (maximal assimilation of the carbon source) is determined by the amount of CO2 lost in anabolism and the amount of carbon source required for generation of NADPH. This stoichiometric limit may be reached when yeasts utilize formate as an additional energy source. Factors affecting the biomass yield on single substrates are discussed under the following headings: Energy requirement for biomass formation (YATP). YATP depends strongly on the nature of the carbon source. Cell composition. The macroscopic composition of the biomass, and in particular the protein content, has a considerable effect on the ATP requirement for biomass formation. Hence, determination of for instance the protein content of biomass is relevant in studies on bioenergetics. Transport of the carbon source. Active (i.e. energy-requiring) transport, which occurs for a number of sugars and polyols, may contribute significantly to the calculated theoretical ATP requirement for biomass formation. P/O-ratio. The efficiency of mitochondrial energy generation has a strong effect on the cell yield. The P/O-ratio is determined to a major extent by the number of proton-translocating sites in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Maintenance and environmental factors. Factors such as osmotic stress, heavy metals, oxygen and carbon dioxide pressures, temperature and pH affect the yield of yeasts. Various mechanisms may be involved, often affecting the maintenance energy requirement. Metabolites such as ethanol and weak acids. Ethanol increases the permeability of the plasma membrane, whereas weak acids can act as proton conductors. Energy content of the growth substrate. It has often been attempted in the literature to predict the biomass yield by correlating the energy content of the carbon source (represented by the degree of reduction) to the biomass yield or the percentage assimilation of the carbon source. An analysis of biomass yields of Candida utilis on a large number of carbon sources indicates that the biomass yield is mainly determined by the biochemical pathways leading to biomass formation, rather than by the energy content of the substrate.

背景与目标： : 生物量产量的化学计量极限 (碳源的最大同化) 取决于合成代谢中损失的CO2量和产生NADPH所需的碳源量。当酵母利用甲酸作为附加能源时，可能会达到该化学计量极限。在以下标题下讨论了影响单基质生物量产量的因素: 生物质形成的能量需求 (YATP)。YATP在很大程度上取决于碳源的性质。细胞组成。生物质的宏观组成，特别是蛋白质含量，对生物质形成的ATP需求具有相当大的影响。因此，例如确定生物质的蛋白质含量与生物能学研究有关。碳源的运输。对于许多糖和多元醇发生的主动 (即需要能量的) 运输，可能对计算出的生物质形成的理论ATP需求有很大贡献。市盈率。线粒体能量产生的效率对细胞产量有很大影响。P/O比在很大程度上取决于线粒体呼吸链中质子转移位点的数量。维护和环境因素。渗透胁迫，重金属，氧气和二氧化碳压力，温度和pH等因素影响酵母的产量。可能涉及各种机制，通常会影响维护能量需求。代谢产物如乙醇和弱酸。乙醇增加了质膜的渗透性，而弱酸可以充当质子导体。生长基质的能量含量。文献中经常尝试通过将碳源的能量含量 (由还原程度表示) 与生物质产量或碳源的同化百分比相关联来预测生物质产量。对大量碳源上的假丝酵母的生物量产量的分析表明，生物量产量主要取决于导致生物量形成的生化途径，而不是取决于底物的能量含量。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The anamniote lateral line system, comprising mechanosensory neuromasts and electrosensory ampullary organs, is a useful model for investigating the developmental and evolutionary diversification of different organs and cell types. Zebrafish neuromast development is increasingly well understood, but neither zebrafish nor Xenopus is electroreceptive and our molecular understanding of ampullary organ development is rudimentary. We have used RNA-seq to generate a lateral line-enriched gene-set from late-larval paddlefish (Polyodon spathula). Validation of a subset reveals expression in developing ampullary organs of transcription factor genes critical for hair cell development, and genes essential for glutamate release at hair cell ribbon synapses, suggesting close developmental, physiological and evolutionary links between non-teleost electroreceptors and hair cells. We identify an ampullary organ-specific proneural transcription factor, and candidates for the voltage-sensing L-type Cav channel and rectifying Kv channel predicted from skate (cartilaginous fish) ampullary organ electrophysiology. Overall, our results illuminate ampullary organ development, physiology and evolution.

背景与目标： : anamniote侧线系统，包括机械感觉神经管和电感觉壶腹器官，是研究不同器官和细胞类型的发育和进化多样化的有用模型。斑马鱼神经肥大的发育越来越被人们所了解，但是斑马鱼和非洲爪蟾都不是电感受性的，我们对壶腹器官发育的分子理解还很初步。我们已经使用RNA-seq从晚幼虫paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) 产生了一条富含侧线的基因集。子集的验证揭示了对毛细胞发育至关重要的转录因子基因的发育中的壶腹器官中的表达，以及毛细胞带状突触中谷氨酸释放必不可少的基因，表明非硬骨膜电感受器与毛细胞之间的密切发育，生理和进化联系。我们确定了壶腹器官特异性的前神经转录因子，并根据滑冰 (软骨鱼) 壶腹器官电生理预测了电压感应L型Cav通道和整流Kv通道。总的来说，我们的结果阐明了壶腹器官的发育，生理和进化。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Cannabis sativa has been known, used, and misused by mankind for centuries, and yet only over the last two decades has research stemming from the chemical constituents specific to this plant, the cannabinoids, started to provide fundamental insights into animal physiology and pathology, resulting in the development of new therapeutics. The discovery of the endocannabinoid system, and its targeting with two new pharmaceutical preparations now on the market in several countries, represent the most recent example of how studies on medicinal plants and on the mechanism of their biological effects can reveal, through a chain of breakthroughs, new systems of endogenous signals and physiological phenomena that can become the source of novel strategies for unmet therapeutic challenges.

背景与目标： : 大麻已经被人类认识，使用和滥用了几个世纪，但仅在过去的二十年中，来自该植物特有的化学成分大麻素的研究开始提供对动物生理学和病理学的基本见解，导致新疗法的发展。内源性大麻素系统的发现及其以目前在几个国家市场上的两种新药物制剂为目标，代表了对药用植物及其生物效应机制的研究如何通过一系列突破揭示的最新例子，内源性信号和生理现象的新系统，可以成为应对未解决的治疗挑战的新策略的来源。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: PURPOSE:This review presents a perspective on the expansive literature on rowing. METHODS:The PubMed database was searched for the most relevant literature, while some information was obtained from books. RESULTS:Following the life span of former rowers paved the way to advocate exercise for health promotion. Rowing involves almost all muscles during the stroke and competition requires a large oxygen uptake, which is challenged by the pulmonary diffusion capacity and restriction in blood flow to the muscles. Unique training adaptations allow for simultaneous engagement of the legs in the relatively slow movement of the rowing stroke that, therefore, involves primarily slow-twitch muscle fibres. Like other sport activities, rowing is associated with adaptation not only of the heart, including both increased internal diameters and myocardial size, but also skeletal muscles with hypertrophy of especially slow-twitch muscle fibres. The high metabolic requirement of intense rowing reduces blood pH and, thereby, arterial oxygen saturation decreases as arterial oxygen tension becomes affected. CONCLUSION:Competitive rowing challenges most systems in the body including pulmonary function and circulatory control with implication for cerebral blood flow and neuromuscular activation. Thus, the physiology of rowing is complex, but it obviously favours large individuals with arms and legs that allow the development of a long stroke. Present inquiries include the development of an appropriately large cardiac output despite the Valsalva-like manoeuvre associated with the stroke, and the remarkable ability of the brain to maintain motor control and metabolism despite marked reductions in cerebral blood flow and oxygenation.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Articular cartilage serves as a load-bearing elastic material that is responsible for the frictionless movement of the surfaces of articulating joints. Its ability to undergo reversible deformation depends on its structural organization, including the specific arrangement of the matrix macromolecules and the chondrocytes. Interactions between the matrix and chondrocytes are responsible for the biological and mechanical properties of articular cartilage and enable it to respond by effecting a balance between anabolism and catabolism as well as continual internal remodeling. Age-related changes in the function of chondrocytes may contribute to the initiation and progression of osteoarthritis.

背景与目标： : 关节软骨是一种承重的弹性材料，负责关节关节表面的无摩擦运动。它进行可逆变形的能力取决于其结构组织，包括基质大分子和软骨细胞的特定排列。基质和软骨细胞之间的相互作用负责关节软骨的生物学和机械特性，并通过影响合成代谢和分解代谢之间的平衡以及持续的内部重塑来使其做出反应。软骨细胞功能的年龄相关变化可能有助于骨关节炎的发生和发展。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: PURPOSE OF REVIEW:To provide an overview of recent developments in the field of systemic osmoregulation, with attention to the brain and kidney. RECENT FINDINGS:A number of pivotal observations underscore the primary importance of transient receptor potential channels in systemic osmoregulation and their involvement constitutes the focus of this review. Recent data suggest that transient receptor potential vanilloid-responsive 4 is a central sensor or effector of systemic hypotonicity, whereas an unidentified variant of transient receptor potential vanilloid-responsive 1 potentially serves an analogous role in systemic hypertonicity. SUMMARY:Members of the transient receptor potential vanilloid-responsive subfamily of transient receptor potential channels are likely to serve as central sensors of systemic anisotonicity.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Vitamin E has been used for more than 50 years in experimental and clinical dermatology. While a large number of case reports were published in this time, there is still a lack of controlled clinical studies providing a rationale for well defined dosages and clinical indications. In contrast, advances in basic research on the physiology, mechanism of action, penetration, bioconversion and photoprotection of vitamin E in human skin has led to the development of numerous new formulations for use in cosmetics and skin care products. This article reviews basic mechanisms and possible cosmetic as well as clinical implications of the recent advances in cutaneous vitamin E research. Experimental evidence suggests that topical and oral vitamin E has antitumorigenic, photoprotective, and skin barrier stabilizing properties. While the current use of vitamin E is largely limited to cosmetics, controlled clinical studies for indications such as atopic dermatitis or preventions of photocarcinogenesis are needed to evaluate the clinical benefit of vitamin E.

背景与目标： : 维生素e已在实验和临床皮肤病学中使用了50多年。尽管这次发表了大量病例报告，但仍缺乏对照临床研究，为明确定义的剂量和临床适应症提供了依据。相反，在人体皮肤中维生素e的生理，作用机理，渗透，生物转化和光保护方面的基础研究进展已导致开发了许多用于化妆品和护肤品的新配方。本文综述了皮肤维生素e研究的最新进展的基本机制和可能的美容以及临床意义。实验证据表明，局部和口服维生素e具有抗肿瘤，光保护和稳定皮肤屏障的特性。尽管目前维生素e的使用主要限于化妆品，但需要针对特应性皮炎或预防光致癌等适应症的对照临床研究来评估维生素e的临床益处。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Habitats vary in temperature both spatially and temporally. Variation in thermal habitat introduces challenges to organisms and may reduce fitness unless organisms can physiologically adjust to such changes. Theory predicts that thermal variability should influence the capacity for acclimation such that increased variation should favor a reduction in the thermal sensitivity of physiological traits. In this study, we investigated acclimation to constant and variable conditions in populations of the salamander Desmognathus brimleyorum from the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas, USA. We exposed salamanders to constant and variable temperature regimes for 8 weeks in the laboratory. We then tested salamanders for acclimation of thermal tolerance, and the thermal sensitivities of swimming performance and standard metabolic rate. Our results indicate limited capacity for thermal acclimation to constant and variable conditions in D. brimleyorum. Instead, variation in physiological traits is dominated by differences among populations. Population differences do not appear to be correlated with observed variation in the thermal conditions of the streams, but are likely a consequence of structural and ecological differences. Due to the mixed support for theoretical predictions for acclimation to alternative environments, further consideration should be given to revising and expanding current theoretical models.

背景与目标： : 栖息地在空间和时间上的温度都不同。热生境的变化给生物体带来了挑战，并且可能会降低适应性，除非生物体能够在生理上适应这种变化。理论预测，热变异性应影响适应能力，因此增加的变异应有助于降低生理性状的热敏感性。在这项研究中，我们调查了来自美国阿肯色州瓦希塔山的sal desmognanthus brimleyorum种群对恒定和可变条件的适应。我们在实验室将sal暴露于恒定和可变的温度状态下8周。然后，我们测试了sal的耐热性，游泳性能和标准代谢率的热敏感性。我们的结果表明，在D. brimleyorum中，热适应恒定和可变条件的能力有限。相反，生理性状的变化主要由人群之间的差异决定。种群差异似乎与观察到的河流热条件变化无关，但可能是结构和生态差异的结果。由于对适应替代环境的理论预测的支持不一，因此应进一步考虑修改和扩展当前的理论模型。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:Bone circulation plays an important role in bone physiology, but has been relatively poorly studied, because most techniques of circulatory research are difficult to apply to bone. This article summarizes briefly some of the important aspects of the physiology of bone blood flow most relevant to orthopaedics. METHODS:The gold standard for experimental measurement of bone blood flow is the radioactive microsphere technique, though advances are being made in other techniques, such as positron emission tomography, laser and ultra-sound Doppler velocimetry, and near infrared spectroscopy, that may provide useful clinical measurement in the future. RESULTS:Multiple vascular pathways contribute to an adaptive response to traumatic disruption of bone circulation. The microcirculation is not merely a passive conduit for blood flow, but plays an active role in controlling bone processes such as osteochondral ossification. DISCUSSION:The pathophysiology of bone circulation has been associated with osteonecrosis, but more and more evidence is pointing to the importance of bone circulation in fracture repair and osteoporosis, both of which are potentially very exciting areas for future studies.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Opioid receptors and opioid agonists are widespread throughout nature. Endogenous opioids mediate complex functions in animals and in humans. The opioid system in humans plays a central role in pain control and is a key mediator of hedonic homeostasis, mood, and well-being. This system also regulates responses to stress and several peripheral physiologic functions, including respiratory, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and immune systems. This article provides an overview of the basic physiology of opioids, reviews opioid pharmacology, and attempts to address several issues of current importance in the management of patients with established long-term opioid therapy.

背景与目标： : 阿片受体和阿片激动剂在自然界中广泛存在。内源性阿片类药物介导动物和人类的复杂功能。人类的阿片类药物系统在疼痛控制中起着核心作用，并且是享乐性稳态，情绪和幸福感的关键介质。该系统还调节对压力和多种外围生理功能的反应，包括呼吸，胃肠道，内分泌和免疫系统。本文概述了阿片类药物的基本生理学，回顾了阿片类药物的药理学，并试图解决在已建立长期阿片类药物治疗的患者管理中当前重要的几个问题。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A new approach to measure activation-related changes in the brain by magnetic resonance is described offering high temporal resolution of 10-100 measurements per second. This is achieved by simultaneous multi-channel reception where the spatial resolution during continuous observation is determined by the sensitive volume of each coil alone without any additional spatial encoding gradients. Experimental results demonstrate the very high sensitivity of this approach, which allows to directly measure and monitor the stimulus-dependent hemodynamic response as well as ECG- and breathing-related signal fluctuations. One-dimensional spatial encoding either parallel or orthogonal to the cortex demonstrates that vascular signals can be identified by the pronounced signal variation at the ECG-frequency. Noise analysis at different frequencies reveals regional signal fluctuations in the frequency range between 2 and 10 Hz. Furthermore, initial results show that frequency changes in the order of <0.03 Hz corresponding to <1 nano Tesla can be detected. In addition to its potential use in neuroscientific studies, this new method opens a wide range of applications for fast physiological monitoring and can be easily combined with conventional high-resolution imaging.

背景与目标： : 描述了一种通过磁共振测量大脑中与激活相关的变化的新方法，该方法提供了每秒10-100次测量的高时间分辨率。这是通过同时进行多通道接收来实现的，其中连续观察期间的空间分辨率由每个线圈的敏感体积单独确定，而没有任何额外的空间编码梯度。实验结果表明，这种方法具有很高的灵敏度，可以直接测量和监测刺激依赖性血液动力学反应以及与ECG和呼吸相关的信号波动。与皮层平行或正交的一维空间编码表明，可以通过ECG频率下明显的信号变化来识别血管信号。不同频率下的噪声分析揭示了2至10Hz频率范围内的区域信号波动。此外，初步结果表明，可以检测到对应于 <1纳米特斯拉的 <0.03Hz量级的频率变化。除了在神经科学研究中的潜在用途外，这种新方法还为快速生理监测开辟了广泛的应用，并且可以轻松地与常规高分辨率成像结合使用。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Animals routinely encounter environmental stressors and may employ phenotypic plasticity to compensate for the costs of these perturbations. Parasites represent an ecologically important stressor for animals, which may induce host plasticity. The present study examined the effects of a trematode parasite, Schistosomatium douthitti, on deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) physiology, behavior and energetics. Measures were taken to assess direct parasite pathology as well as potential host plasticity used to reduce the costs of these pathologies. Parasitized mice had increased liver and spleen masses, as well as decreased liver protein synthesis. Parasitism also led to increased gastrointestinal (GI) mass, either directly due to parasite presence or as host compensation for decreased GI function. No additional plasticity was recorded - infected animals did not consume more food, decrease in body mass or reduce their activity. Parasitism led to reduced thermoregulation during short-term cold exposure, indicating that there may be fitness costs of parasitism. There were no changes in the other measures of energetics taken here, namely basal metabolic rate (BMR) and cold-induced maximal metabolic rate (MR(max)). Together, the results suggest that many costs of parasite infection are largely ameliorated through physiological or morphological compensatory mechanisms.

背景与目标： : 动物通常会遇到环境压力源，并可能采用表型可塑性来补偿这些扰动的成本。寄生虫是动物在生态上重要的应激源，可能会引起宿主的可塑性。本研究研究了吸虫寄生虫血吸虫对鹿鼠 (Peromyscus maniculatus) 生理，行为和能量的影响。已采取措施评估直接寄生虫病理以及潜在的宿主可塑性，以降低这些病理的成本。被寄生的小鼠肝脏和脾脏肿块增加，肝脏蛋白质合成减少。寄生还导致胃肠道 (GI) 质量增加，这直接归因于寄生虫的存在或作为宿主对GI功能降低的补偿。没有记录到其他可塑性-感染的动物没有食用更多的食物，体重减少或活动减少。寄生导致短期冷暴露期间温度调节降低，这表明寄生可能会产生适应性成本。此处采取的其他能量指标没有变化，即基础代谢率 (BMR) 和冷诱导的最大代谢率 (MR(max))。总之，结果表明，通过生理或形态补偿机制，寄生虫感染的许多成本在很大程度上得到改善。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :MicroRNAs (miRNA), are short regulatory RNA molecules that regulate gene expression by binding specific sequences within target messenger RNA (mRNA) [...].

背景与目标： : MicroRNAs (miRNA) 是短的调节RNA分子，通过结合靶信使RNA (mRNA) 内的特定序列来调节基因表达 [...]。