BACKGROUND & AIMS: :What leads humans to divide the social world into groups, preferring their own group and disfavoring others? Experiments with infants and young children suggest these tendencies are based on predispositions that emerge early in life and depend, in part, on natural language. Young infants prefer to look at a person who previously spoke their native language. Older infants preferentially accept toys from native-language speakers, and preschool children preferentially select native-language speakers as friends. Variations in accent are sufficient to evoke these social preferences, which are observed in infants before they produce or comprehend speech and are exhibited by children even when they comprehend the foreign-accented speech. Early-developing preferences for native-language speakers may serve as a foundation for later-developing preferences and conflicts among social groups.

背景与目标： ：是什么导致人类将社会世界分成群体，偏爱自己的群体而不利于他人？对婴幼儿进行的实验表明，这些趋势是基于生命早期出现的倾向，并且部分取决于自然语言。幼儿更喜欢看以前讲母语的人。大一点的婴儿优先接受母语使用者的玩具，而学龄前儿童则优先选择母语使用者。口音变化足以唤起这些社会偏好，这种偏好在婴儿产生或理解语音之前就已经观察到，并且即使他们理解具有外国口音的语音，也会被儿童表现出来。较早发展的母语使用者的偏爱可以作为较晚发展的偏爱和社会群体之间冲突的基础。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Studies of brain areas supporting deductive reasoning show inconsistent results, possibly because of the variety of tasks and baselines used. In two event-related functional magnetic imaging studies we employed a cognitive load paradigm to isolate the neural correlates of deductive reasoning and address the role (if any) of language in deduction. Healthy participants evaluated the logical status of arguments varying in deductive complexity but matched in linguistic complexity. Arguments also varied in lexical content, involving blocks and pseudo-words in Experiment I and faces and houses in Experiment II. For each experiment, subtraction of simple from complex arguments (collapsing across contents) revealed a network of activations disjoint from regions traditionally associated with linguistic processing and also disjoint from regions recruited by mere reading. We speculate that this network is divided into "core" and "support" regions. The latter include left frontal (BA 6, 47) and parietal (BA 7, 40) cortices, which maintain the formal structure of arguments. Core regions, in the left rostral (BA 10p) and bilateral medial (BA 8) prefrontal cortex, perform deductive operations. Finally, restricting the complex-simple subtraction to each lexical content uncovered additional activations which may reflect the binding of logical variables to lexical items.

背景与目标： ：支持演绎推理的大脑区域研究显示出不一致的结果，可能是因为使用了各种各样的任务和基准。在两项与事件相关的功能磁成像研究中，我们采用认知负荷范式来隔离演绎推理的神经相关性，并探讨语言在演绎中的作用（如果有）。健康的参与者评估了演绎复杂性不同但语言复杂性匹配的论证的逻辑状态。争论的词汇内容也各不相同，在实验一中涉及块和伪词，在实验二中涉及面孔和房屋。对于每个实验，从复杂的论证中减去简单的内容（在内容中折叠）显示了与传统上与语言处理相关联的区域脱节的激活网络，也与仅阅读而招募的区域脱节。我们推测此网络分为“核心”和“支持”区域。后者包括左额叶皮层（BA 6，47）和顶叶皮层（BA 7，40），它们保持了论证的形式结构。左延髓（BA 10p）和双侧内侧（BA 8）前额叶皮层的核心区域执行演绎操作。最后，将复杂简单的减法限制为每个词法内容，发现了可能反映逻辑变量与词法项的绑定的其他激活。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Health services research practices in the context of ethnic and cultural diversity are under scrutiny. One issue that needs to be considered is that of inclusion in, and exclusion from, research studies on the basis of language ability. We explore current reporting practice concerning recruitment of participants in health services research using examples from one 'high impact' journal and suggest ways in which future reporting can be strengthened. METHODS:Retrospective review of 207 'original research pieces' published in the BMJ. INCLUSION CRITERIA:articles published in 2003 and 2004 reporting research entailing direct communication between a researcher and health service users. A data extraction checklist was applied concerning the reporting of language-related decisions in recruitment. RESULTS:Eighty-four percent of the research articles did not engage with language issues at all. For most papers it was impossible to ascertain whether research was carried out in a monolingual population or whether researchers had effectively excluded non-primary language speakers in their recruitment procedures. Over half (n=34) of the papers that mentioned language did so in relation to exclusion criteria, usually without further comment. CONCLUSIONS:Reporting practice on language-related decisions in recruitment and on the exclusion of research participants on grounds of language ability needs to be improved. A checklist for authors, reviewers or editors is offered with the aim of encouraging fuller reporting on the language composition of source and sample populations, and greater consideration of any implications that exclusion/inclusion on the grounds of language may have for studies and their findings.

背景与目标： 背景：在种族和文化多样性背景下的卫生服务研究实践正在接受审查。需要考虑的一个问题是在语言能力的基础上将研究纳入或排除在研究之外。我们使用一本“高影响力”期刊中的示例探讨了有关招募健康服务研究参与者的当前报告做法，并提出了加强未来报告的方法。
方法：回顾性发表于BMJ的207篇“原始研究论文”。
纳入标准：2003年和2004年发表的报道研究的文章要求研究人员与卫生服务使用者之间进行直接交流。应用了数据提取清单，该清单涉及招聘中与语言相关的决策的报告。
结果：84％的研究文章完全不涉及语言问题。对于大多数论文，无法确定研究是在单一语言人群中进行的，还是研究人员在招募程序中是否有效排除了使用非主要语言的人。超过一半（n = 34）提到语言的论文与排除标准有关，通常无需进一步评论。
结论：关于招聘中与语言有关的决定以及基于语言能力的研究参与者被排除在外的报告实践有待改进。提供了针对作者，审稿人或编辑的清单，目的是鼓励对来源和样本人群的语言组成进行更全面的报告，并更多地考虑基于语言的排斥/包含可能对研究及其发现产生的任何影响。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The language abilities of 42 8-year-old preterm children with birth weight < 1,750 g from a 1-year birth cohort in northern Finland was studied with four different language tests. Control children from the same birth cohort matched individually with their preterm pairs for age, sex, twinship, mother's education, place of residence, birth order and family type were also studied. In psycholinguistic test, auditory skills did not differ between the preterm and the full-term groups. Nor did any other linguistic subtest differentiate between the groups. Instead, the preterm children scored significantly poorer than their controls in visual subtests. The study also showed that the poor performance in visual tests was associated with neonatal morbidity, namely neonatal infections, need for continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment and patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). When studying the language abilities of preterm children, we suggest that qualitative methods should be used to analyse linguistic skills. We recommend versatile follow-up of preterm children until school age.

背景与目标： ：通过四个不同的语言测试，研究了芬兰北部1岁出生队列中42名8岁以下体重小于1750 g的早产儿的语言能力。还研究了来自同一出生队列的对照儿童，分别与他们的早产配对相匹配，包括年龄，性别，双胞胎，母亲的教育程度，居住地，出生顺序和家庭类型。在心理语言测试中，早产组和足额组之间的听觉技能没有差异。其他语言子测验也没有区分这两组。取而代之的是，早产儿在视觉子测验中的得分明显低于对照组。该研究还表明，视力检查的不良表现与新生儿发病率（即新生儿感染），持续气道正压通气（CPAP）治疗和动脉导管未闭（PDA）的需要有关。在研究早产儿的语言能力时，我们建议应使用定性方法来分析语言能力。我们建议对学龄前儿童进行多方面的随访，直到学龄前。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:A formal and complete language assessment requires too much time and also tires the patient out during the first recovery stages after brain injury. The aim of this paper is to introduce a bedside screening, short and sensitive to diagnose aphasias in patients with brain injury. PATIENTS AND METHODS:The results of the Bedside Assessment of Language (BAL) was studied in 121 aphasic patients and in 77 dysarthric patients after brain injury. The five linguistic areas assessed in this short battery are: spontaneous language, comprehension, repetition, writing and reading. Each area has a maximum of 5 points, and the test has a total score of 25. Statistics tests used were: median test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Fisher's exact test, receiver operating characteristics curves and correlation coefficient. RESULTS:The BAL showed an excellent internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha coefficient: 0.9419); sensitivity was of 79.3% and specificity of 84.4%. CONCLUSIONS:These results indicate that the BAL has been a potentially useful tool for the diagnose of the type of aphasia and it has been sensitive to evolutionary changes in sub-acute stages of language disorders.

背景与目标： 简介：正式而完整的语言评估需要太多时间，并且在脑损伤后的最初恢复阶段会使患者感到疲倦。本文的目的是介绍一种床头筛查，该筛查筛查短而灵敏，可诊断出脑损伤患者的失语症。
病人和方法：在121例失语症患者和77例心律不齐的脑损伤患者中研究了床旁语言评估（BAL）的结果。简短介绍的五个语言领域是：自发的语言，理解，重复，写作和阅读。每个区域最多获得5分，该测试的总分为25。所使用的统计测试包括：中位数测试，Kruskal-Wallis测试，Fisher精确测试，接收器工作特性曲线和相关系数。
结果：BAL显示出极好的内部一致性可靠性（Cronbach's alpha系数：0.9419）；敏感性为79.3％，特异性为84.4％。
结论：这些结果表明，BAL已成为诊断失语症的潜在有用工具，并且对语言障碍亚急性阶段的进化变化敏感。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Current approaches to assessing agrammatism use data from restricted contexts, such as picture description and story telling tasks. There is evidence in the conversation analysis literature to suggest that conversational grammar may differ markedly from the grammar of such elicited language samples. The disparity between conversational and test grammar suggests that it is possible for the form of an agrammatic utterance to be motivated by the context in which it occurs. Thus, behaviours previously considered to be symptoms of agrammatism may be adaptations to talking in different environments. This study analyses two distinctive test response forms made by two agrammatic speakers, and discusses whether they might be strategic adaptations to testing rather than symptoms of impairment.

背景与目标： ：目前评估语法的方法使用来自受限上下文的数据，例如图片描述和讲故事的任务。会话分析文献中有证据表明，会话语法可能与此类语言样本的语法明显不同。会话语法和测试语法之间的差异表明，语法发声的形式有可能受到其发生的上下文的激励。因此，以前被认为是语法特征的行为可能是适应不同环境中的谈话。这项研究分析了两位讲语法的人做出的两种独特的测试反应形式，并讨论了它们是否可能是对测试的战略适应，而不是障碍的症状。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Acoustic analyses of eight different languages/dialects had revealed a language universal: Three spectral factors consistently appeared in analyses of power fluctuations of spoken sentences divided by critical-band filters into narrow frequency bands. Examining linguistic implications of these factors seems important to understand how speech sounds carry linguistic information. Here we show the three general categories of the English phonemes, i.e., vowels, sonorant consonants, and obstruents, to be discriminable in the Cartesian space constructed by these factors: A factor related to frequency components above 3,300 Hz was associated only with obstruents (e.g., /k/ or /z/), and another factor related to frequency components around 1,100 Hz only with vowels (e.g., /a/ or /i/) and sonorant consonants (e.g., /w/, /r/, or /m/). The latter factor highly correlated with the hypothetical concept of sonority or aperture in phonology. These factors turned out to connect the linguistic and acoustic aspects of speech sounds systematically.

背景与目标： ：对八种不同语言/方言的声学分析显示出一种通用的语言：在口语的功率波动分析中，始终存在三个频谱因素，这些问题被临界带滤波器划分为狭窄的频带。检查这些因素的语言含义对于理解语音如何携带语言信息似乎很重要。在这里，我们显示了由这些因素构成的笛卡尔空间中可辨别的英语音素的三个一般类别，即元音，回音辅音和假言：与3,300 Hz以上的频率分量相关的因素仅与假言有关（例如，/ k /或/ z /），以及与仅在元音（例如/ a /或/ i /）和子音辅音（例如/ w /，/ r /或/ m /）。后一因素与语音学中声音或孔径的假设概念高度相关。这些因素证明可以系统地连接语音的语言和声学方面。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Prosodic impairments occur in many clinical populations, including those with autism and motor speech disorders. These impairments can negatively impact intelligibility, as well as an individual's ability to signal and understand linguistic contrasts and emotions. For this study, we surveyed 245 Speech-Language Pathologists (SLPs) to assess their clinical practices with regards to prosody and to identify potential barriers to addressing prosody in the clinic. While a majority of respondents agreed that prosody was within their scope of practice, they reported that they rarely assessed or treated prosody when they suspected that a client had a prosodic impairment. Overall, respondents felt they were lacking in knowledge of the nature of prosody, experience with clients who have prosodic impairments, and knowledge of assessment and treatment methods for prosody. Recommendations include increasing training opportunities, encouraging collaboration between researchers and SLPs with expertise in prosody, and the development of a clinically feasible prosody assessment.

背景与目标： ：韵律障碍发生在许多临床人群中，包括患有自闭症和运动言语障碍的人群。这些障碍可能会对清晰度以及个人表达和理解语言对比和情感的能力产生负面影响。在这项研究中，我们调查了245位言语病理学家（SLP），以评估他们在韵律方面的临床实践，并确定在临床中解决韵律的潜在障碍。尽管大多数答复者认为，起诉是在其业务范围之内的，但他们报告说，他们怀疑当事人有韵律障碍时很少评估或治疗该起诉。总体而言，受访者认为他们缺乏关于韵律性质的知识，与患有韵律障碍的服务对象的经验以及对韵律的评估和治疗方法的知识。建议包括增加培训机会，鼓励研究人员和具有韵律专业知识的SLP之间的合作，以及开发临床上可行的韵律评估。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Expressive language impairment is one of the most frequently associated clinical features of 16p11.2 copy number variations (CNV). However, our understanding of the language profiles of individuals with 16p11.2 CNVs is still limited. This study builds upon previous work in the Simons Variation in Individuals Project (VIP, now known as Simons Searchlight), to characterize language abilities in 16p11.2 deletion and duplication carriers using comprehensive assessments. Participants included 110 clinically ascertained children and family members (i.e., siblings and cousins) with 16p11.2 BP4-BP5 deletion and 58 with 16p11.2 BP4-BP5 duplication between the ages of 2-23 years, most of whom were verbal. Regression analyses were performed to quantify variation in language abilities in the presence of the 16p11.2 deletion and duplication, both with and without autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and cognitive deficit. Difficulties in pragmatic skills were equally prevalent in verbal individuals in both deletion and duplication groups. NVIQ had moderate quantifiable effects on language scores in syntax and semantics/pragmatics (a decrease of less than 1 SD) for both groups. Overall, language impairments persisted even after controlling for ASD diagnosis and cognitive deficit. Language impairment is one of the core clinical features of individuals with 16p11.2 CNVs even in the absence of ASD and cognitive deficit. Results highlight the need for more comprehensive and rigorous assessment of language impairments to maximize outcomes in carriers of 16p11.2 CNVs.

背景与目标： ：表达性语言障碍是16p11.2拷贝数变异（CNV）最常见的临床特征之一。但是，我们对具有16p11.2 CNV的人的语言档案的了解仍然有限。这项研究基于以前的个人西蒙斯变异项目（VIP，现称为西蒙斯Searchlight）中的工作，旨在通过全面评估来表征16p11.2删除和复制载体中的语言能力。参加者包括2-23岁之间有16p11.2 BP4-BP5缺失的110名经临床确定的儿童和家庭成员（即兄弟姐妹和堂兄弟姐妹）和16p11.2 BP4-BP5重复的58名儿童，其中大多数是口头的。进行回归分析以量化存在和不存在自闭症谱系障碍（ASD）和认知缺陷的16p11.2缺失和重复存在下语言能力的变化。在删除和重复组中，口头表达个人的实用技巧上的困难同样普遍。 NVIQ对两组语言和语法/语用/语用学得分都有中等程度的量化影响（减少幅度小于1 SD）。总体而言，即使在控制了ASD诊断和认知缺陷后，语言障碍仍持续存在。语言障碍是具有16p11.2 CNV的个体的核心临床特征之一，即使在没有ASD和认知缺陷的情况下也是如此。结果强调需要对语言障碍进行更全面，更严格的评估，以最大程度地提高16p11.2 CNV携带者的治疗效果。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Documenting patient care is an important part of mental health services. The documentation is expected to be accurate, relevant, and informative for all future readers as it provides details about patients and the care they are receiving. Language can produce positive or negative emotions in individuals, and these emotions can influence their thoughts and actions. Considering this, nursing documentation can impact the future care of patients. In this study, our aim was to analyse the language and words nurses use when documenting about their patients. Through a qualitative review of notes transcribed by mental health nurses in a forensic setting (n = 55), we explored the adjectives and verbs used across a subsection of their documentation over a three-month period. More specifically, we identified the most common words used, looked for patterns in use, and examined the emotional weight - or valence - of word choice. Examination of valence scores of the adjectives and verbs in the notes indicates that while nurses describe their patients in a rather neutral manner overall, some words and phrases are ambiguous and/or repetitive, and have the potential to negatively influence the perceptions of the reader regarding the patient. Clinical implications of patient care are discussed in the context of bias management. Nurses need to consider how word choice is linked to negative prosody and the need to provide additional information to avoid ambiguity. Without such care, notes can be subject to misinterpretation by readers leading to undue labels, stigma, and bias.

背景与目标： ：记录患者护理是心理健康服务的重要组成部分。该文档将为所有未来的读者提供准确，相关且可作为参考的信息，因为它提供了有关患者及其所接受护理的详细信息。语言会在个人中产生积极或消极的情绪，这些情绪会影响他们的思想和行为。考虑到这一点，护理文件可能会影响患者的未来护理。在这项研究中，我们的目的是分析护士在记录患者病历时使用的语言和词语。通过对司法医护人员在法医环境下转录的注释进行定性审查（n = 55），我们研究了在三个月的时间里，他们文档的一个小节中使用的形容词和动词。更具体地说，我们确定了最常用的单词，寻找使用的模式，并检查了单词选择的情感分量或效价。检查笔记中的形容词和动词的效价分数表明，尽管护士总体上以中性的方式描述其患者，但某些单词和短语含糊不清和/或重复，并有可能对读者的看法产生负面影响病人。在偏倚管理的背景下讨论了患者护理的临床意义。护士需要考虑单词选择与否定韵律有何联系，以及需要提供其他信息以避免模棱两可。如果没有这样的注意，便笺可能会被读者误解，从而导致不必要的标签，污名和偏见。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Although factors such as adverse family background have been widely examined, little is known about the prevalence or potential impact of developmental language disorder (DLD) on risk of recidivism in young people with history of criminal justice system contact. METHODS:A total of 145 young offenders participated. An adversity score was constructed based on information found in youth justice service records. Data collected included standardised measures of expressive and receptive language, nonverbal IQ and the inventory of callous-unemotional traits. Survival analysis was performed to examine differences in reoffending risk between young offenders with and without DLD. RESULTS:The cumulative incidence of reoffending within a year of the young person's court order was markedly raised in the DLD group (62%; 95% CI 52, 72) versus the non-DLD group (25%; 95% CI 16, 39). Furthermore, in the final multivariable survival analysis the independent elevation in risk linked with DLD was not greatly attenuated with adjustment for nonverbal IQ, adversity score, age at first offence, number of previous offences and deprivation score. DLD was the most significant predictor with an adjusted hazard ratio of 2.61 (95% CI 1.80, 3.78). CONCLUSIONS:Young offenders with DLD are more than twice as likely to reoffend than their unaffected offending peers. DLD is a powerful predictor of recidivism above and beyond other known risk factors.

背景与目标： 背景：尽管已经对家庭不利背景等因素进行了广泛研究，但对于有刑事司法系统接触史的年轻人，发展性语言障碍（DLD）的发生率或潜在的累犯风险知之甚少。
方法：共有145名年轻罪犯参加。根据青少年司法服务记录中的信息建立了逆境得分。收集的数据包括表达和接受语言的标准化测量，非语言智商和无情-不动特征的清单。进行了生存分析，以检查有无DLD的年轻罪犯之间再犯风险的差异。
结果：与非DLD组相比，DLD组（62％; 95％CI 52，72）显着提高了青少年法院命令后一年内再次犯罪的累积发生率。 ）。此外，在最终的多变量生存分析中，通过调整非语言智商，逆境评分，初犯年龄，先前犯罪次数和剥夺分数，并没有大大减轻与DLD相关的独立风险升高。 DLD是最重要的预测因子，调整后的危险比为2.61（95％CI 1.80，3.78）。
结论：患有DLD的年轻罪犯重新犯罪的可能性是其未受影响罪犯的两倍。 DLD是超越其他已知风险因素的累犯的有力预测指标。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: PURPOSE:To use functional MR imaging to compare brain activation during processing of languages in which multilingual volunteers are fluent with brain activation during processing of languages in which they are not fluent.

METHODS:Echoplanar images were obtained for five right-handed male multilingual subjects who performed a language task in three languages, one of which was a language in which the subject was not fluent. The functional MR technique included echoplanar images obtained at 1 per second during cycles of rest and performance of the task, from which functional images were processed by means of cross-correlation analysis. The numbers of active pixels in each volunteer and for each language were compared.

RESULTS:Activation was noted in the left frontal lobe in all subjects performing language tasks. In each subject, the number of activated pixels was greatest for the language in which the subject was least fluent.

CONCLUSION:Functional MR imaging shows differences in the processing of different languages in multilingual volunteer subjects, depending on the level of fluency in the language, and it is an effective functional imaging method for studying the processing of different languages.

背景与目标： 目的：要使用功能性MR成像来比较在多语言志愿者能流利使用的语言处理过程中的大脑激活与在他们不会流利的语言处理过程中的大脑激活。

>方法：从五名右撇子男性多语受试者获得了回波图像，这些受试者用三种语言执行语言任务，其中一种是该受试者不流利的语言。功能性MR技术包括在休息和执行任务期间以每秒1次的速度获取回波平面图像，然后通过互相关分析从中处理功能性图像。比较每个志愿者和每种语言的活动像素数量。

结果：在所有执行语言任务的受试者的左额叶中都注意到了激活。在每个主题中，对于该主题最不流利的语言，激活的像素数量最多。

结论：功能性MR成像显示多语言对不同语言的处理有所不同自愿者，取决于语言的流利程度，它是一种有效的功能成像方法，用于研究不同语言的处理。