BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The main purpose of the present study was to learn how mathematical abilities are located and develop in the brain with respect to language. Mathematical abilities were assessed in six right-handed patients affected by aphasia following a lesion to their non-dominant hemisphere (crossed aphasia) and in two left-handed aphasics with a right-sided lesion. Acalculia, although in different degrees, was found in all cases. The type of acalculia depended on the type of aphasia, following patterns that have been previously observed in the most common aphasias resulting from left hemisphere lesions. No sign of right hemisphere or spatial acalculia (acalculia in left lateralised right-handed subjects) was detected. These results suggest that, as a rule, language and calculation share the same hemisphere. A primitive computational mechanism capable of recursion may be the precursor of both functions.

背景与目标： ：本研究的主要目的是学习关于语言的数学能力如何在大脑中定位和发展。评估了六名右撇子患者在非优势性半球病变（交叉性失​​语症）后患失语症的数学能力，以及两名左撇子右手病变的数学能力。在所有情况下均发现失语症，尽管程度不同。失语症的类型取决于失语症的类型，遵循先前在左半球病变导致的最常见失语症中观察到的模式。未检测到右半球或空间失聪的迹象（左外侧右手受试者的眼球积水）。这些结果表明，通常，语言和计算共享相同的半球。能够递归的原始计算机制可能是这两种功能的先驱。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The recognition of professional qualifications in all European Union (EU) member states for nurses is covered by both sectoral and general systems directives, yet in reality, few nurses take up their rights as European citizens to live and work in another EU country. One of the main reasons for this is a lack of linguistic skills. This article argues that the nursing profession should be taking a more active role in enabling nurses to move freely around Europe by encouraging language acquisition. It is argued that there are political, social, economic, professional and individual reasons why this should be so. The author gives a brief account of a pilot project which is currently under way to help improve (albeit in a small way) this situation. The project, which has been granted financial support of 100,000 ECU from the European Commission's new training programme, Leonardo da Vinci, will create a multimedia language pack in four languages aimed specifically at nurses.

背景与目标： 部门和通用系统指令都涵盖了所有欧盟（EU）成员国对护士的专业资格的认可，但实际上，很少有护士作为欧洲公民享有在另一个欧盟国家生活和工作的权利。造成这种情况的主要原因之一是缺乏语言能力。本文认为，护理行业应在鼓励护士掌握语言方面，使护士在欧洲自由行动方面发挥更积极的作用。有人认为，这样做的原因有政治，社会，经济，专业和个人原因。作者简要介绍了一个正在进行的试点项目，以帮助改善（尽管有小幅改善）这种情况。该项目已获得欧盟委员会新培训计划Leonardo da Vinci的100,000 ECU的财政支持，该项目将创建专门针对护士的四种语言的多媒体语言包。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :We studied expressive and receptive language, oral motor ability, attention, memory, and intelligence in 20 6-year-old children with epilepsy (14 females, six males; mean age 6y 5mo, range 6y-6y 11mo) without learning disability, cerebral palsy (CP), and/or autism, and in 30 reference children without epilepsy (18 females, 12 males; mean age 6y 5mo, range 6y-6y 11mo). Ten children had partial, six primarily generalized, and four unclassified epilepsy. Fourteen were having monotherapy and six were taking two or more antiepileptic drugs; 13 children were free from seizures 3 months before the assessment. Results show no statistically significant difference between the groups concerning Verbal IQ, expressive and receptive grammar, and receptive vocabulary. The children with epilepsy had a significantly lower Performance IQ and lower scores in tests of oral motor ability, articulation, emerging literacy, auditory attention, short-term memory, and rapid word retrieval. Parent ratings revealed no significant difference in communicative ability. Polytherapy and early onset of epilepsy influenced some results. Preschool children with epilepsy without learning disability, CP, and/or autism may have receptive verbal ability within the normal range but visuoperceptual, auditory attentional, and speech-language difficulties that could affect school achievement. Careful testing of children with epilepsy who appear to be functioning within the normal range is needed because this may reveal specific impairments that require appropriate professional input.

背景与目标： ：我们研究了20名没有学习障碍的6岁癫痫儿童（14名女性，男6名；平均年龄6y 5mo，范围6y-6y 11mo）的表达和接受语言，口述运动能力，注意力，记忆力和智力，脑瘫（CP）和/或自闭症，以及30例没有癫痫的参考儿童（女性18例，男性12例；平均年龄6y 5mo，范围6y-6y 11mo）。十名儿童患有部分性癫痫，六名主要为全身性癫痫和四名未分类癫痫。十四名接受单一疗法，六名正在服用两种或更多种抗癫痫药；评估前3个月，有13名儿童没有癫痫发作。结果显示，在语言智商，表达和接受语法以及接受词汇方面，两组之间在统计学上没有显着差异。患有癫痫病的儿童在口语运动能力，清晰度，新兴素养，听觉注意，短期记忆和快速单词检索方面的测试中，智商显着降低，得分较低。父母的等级显示沟通能力没有显着差异。多种疗法和癫痫的早期发作影响了一些结果。患有癫痫病且没有学习障碍，CP和/或自闭症的学龄前儿童，其言语接受能力可能在正常范围内，但视觉，听觉，听觉和言语方面的困难可能会影响学习成绩。需要对似乎在正常范围内运行的癫痫患儿进行仔细检查，因为这可能会发现需要适当专业投入的特定障碍。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Schizophrenic illnesses occur with approximately the same incidence in all human populations with a characteristic distribution (slightly earlier in males) of ages of onset. Given that the predisposition (which presumably is genetic) is associated with a procreative disadvantage why do such illnesses persist? Here it is suggested that these conditions are a manifestation of genetic diversity in the evolution of the specifically human characteristic of language, an innovation that has occurred by a process of progressive hemispheric specialization-the establishment of dominance for some critical component of language in one or the other hemisphere. Individuals who develop schizophrenic symptoms show lesser anatomical and functional asymmetries than the population as a whole; such symptoms may reflect 'dominance failure' for language.

背景与目标： 在所有人群中，精神分裂症疾病的发病率几乎相同，并且发病年龄具有特征性分布（男性稍早）。鉴于这种易感性（可能是遗传性的）与生产性劣势有关，为什么这种疾病持续存在？在此建议这些条件是语言的特定人类特征演变过程中遗传多样性的体现，这种创新是通过逐步半球专业化的过程（在一个或多个语言中确定语言的某些关键成分的主导地位）而发生的。另一个半球。与整个人群相比，出现精神分裂症症状的个体在解剖学和功能上的不对称性较小。这样的症状可能反映了语言的“统治失败”。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVES:To longitudinally assess the receptive and expressive language functioning of children with symptomatic HIV disease and to explore the relationship between immune status, computed tomography (CT) brain scan abnormalities, and language dysfunction over time. METHODS:Children with symptomatic HIV infection were administered an age-appropriate standardized comprehensive language test and general cognitive measure prior to starting antiretroviral therapy (n = 44) and again after 6 months (n = 29) and 24 months (n = 17). CD4 percentage and CT brain scans were also obtained at each evaluation. RESULTS:Expressive language was significantly more impaired than receptive language at the baseline, 6- and 24-month evaluations. No significant changes over time were found in receptive or expressive language from baseline to after 6 months of antiretroviral therapy, but despite treatment, language scores declined significantly between 6 and 24 months. Overall cognitive function, however, remained stable from baseline to 24 months. Age-adjusted CD4 percentage increased significantly over the initial 6 months, then remained stable. Overall CT brain scan severity ratings did not change significantly over 24 months. CONCLUSION:Expressive language was consistently more impaired than receptive language over 24 months, further supporting an earlier finding that expressive language was differentially affected by HIV in children with symptomatic disease. Both receptive and expressive language declined significantly after 24 months despite antiretroviral therapy, although overall cognitive function remained stable. Thus, functioning in some domains may be more vulnerable to the effects of HIV and global measures of cognitive ability may mask such differential changes in specific brain functions.

背景与目标： 目的：纵向评估有症状的艾滋病毒儿童的接受和表达语言功能，并探讨免疫状态，计算机断层扫描（CT）脑部扫描异常和语言功能障碍之间的关系。
方法：在开始抗逆转录病毒治疗之前（n = 44），在6个月（n = 29）和24个月（n = 17）之后，对有症状HIV感染的儿童进行适合年龄的标准化综合语言测试和一般认知测量。在每次评估中也获得了CD4百分比和CT脑部扫描。
结果：在基线，6个月和24个月评估中，表达语言比接受语言明显受损。从基线到抗逆转录病毒治疗6个月后，在接受性或表达性语言上均未发现随时间的显着变化，但尽管进行了治疗，但语言评分在6到24个月之间显着下降。然而，从基线到24个月，总体认知功能保持稳定。年龄调整后的CD4百分比在最初的6个月中显着增加，然后保持稳定。整个CT脑部扫描的严重程度等级在24个月内没有显着变化。
结论：在过去的24个月中，表达语言始终比接受语言受到的损害更大，这进一步支持了较早的发现，即对有症状疾病的儿童而言，表达语言受HIV的影响不同。尽管进行了整​​体抗逆治疗，尽管接受了抗逆转录病毒治疗，但接受性和表达性语言在24个月后均显着下降。因此，某些领域的功能可能更容易受到HIV的影响，而认知能力的整体衡量标准可能掩盖了特定大脑功能的这种差异性变化。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:The study aimed to assess the use of Integrated Mismatch Negativity (MMNi) in differentiating children with specific language impairment (SLI) from a control group. DESIGN:Six conditions were created using a 1,000-Hz standard stimulus with three deviants of 1,020, 1,050, or 1,100 Hz and two interstimulus intervals of 400 and 200 ms. Recordings were processed offline using NeuroScan Edit (NeuroScan, Texas, United States). Four time analysis points were chosen and the magnitude of the integrated deviant was compared with the 100 standard subaverages. Mismatch negativity (MMN) presence was determined when 10 or less of the standard subaverages were less than the deviant subaverage magnitude. STUDY PARTICIPANTS:A total of 18 children with SLI and 35 typical development children participated in the study. RESULTS:Pearson chi-square test demonstrated that the proportion of MMN presence in the SLI group was not significantly different from the control group and it did not vary with condition. Two-way between-group analysis of variance confirmed that using 1,000 Hz standard, 1,050 Hz deviant, and 400 ms interstimulus interval was significantly different from the other conditions. CONCLUSION:MMNi does not serve as a tool for identifying children with SLI when using pure-tone stimuli. However, using different time analysis points with MMNi should be explored further, particularly with speech material.

背景与目标： 目的：本研究旨在评估综合失配阴性（MMNi）在区分具有特定语言障碍（SLI）的儿童与对照组中的作用。
设计：使用1,000Hz标准刺激物创建六个条件，其中三个偏差分别为1,020、1,050或1,100 Hz，两个刺激间隔为400和200 ms。使用NeuroScan Edit（美国得克萨斯州，NeuroScan）对记录进行脱机处理。选择了四个时间分析点，并将积分偏差的大小与100个标准子平均值进行了比较。当10个或更少的标准子平均值小于偏差子平均值幅度时，确定不匹配负性（MMN）的存在。
研究对象：共有18名SLI儿童和35名典型发育儿童参加了研究。
结果：Pearson卡方检验表明，SLI组中MMN的存在比例与对照组无显着差异，并且随状况而变化。两组之间的方差分析证实，使用1,000 Hz标准，1,050 Hz偏差和400 ms激励间隔与其他条件有显着差异。
结论：使用纯音刺激时，MMNi不能作为识别SLI儿童的工具。但是，应进一步探索对MMNi使用不同的时间分析点，尤其是语音材料。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Traditional linguistics was based on the idea that language is an activity that links sounds and meaning, an idea that has been referred to as 'the code view of language' because codes are the most familiar processes that generate meaning. Ever since the work of Noam Chomsky, however, this view has been increasingly replaced by 'the syntax view of language', the idea that children learn a language because they have an innate mechanism that allows them to grasp the syntax of whatever language they grow up with. This innate mechanism has been given various names - first Universal Grammar, then Language Acquisition Device (LAD), and finally Faculty of Language - but despite decades of research attempts there still is no evidence that such a device actually exists. At the same time, it has become increasingly clear that codes are not the sole processes that generate meaning. Another such process is the ability of higher animals to interpret what goes on in the world, and interpretation is different from coding because it is not based on fixed rules but on a process that Charles Peirce called abduction. This allows us to generalize the code view of language into the semantic view of language, a theory which maintains that language is primarily a semantic activity that gives meaning to sounds either by codes or by processes of interpretation. This view, furthermore, gives us a new theoretical framework for studying the origin of language without resorting to any deus ex machina device. In this framework the origin of language is compared with the origin of life and the origin of mind, because those mega transitions generated the three great families of codes that we find in Nature - the organic codes, the neural codes and the cultural codes - and it is possible that a comparative study allows us to catch a glimpse of the mechanisms that gave origin to language.

背景与目标： 传统语言学基于：语言是一种将声音和含义联系起来的活动，该思想被称为“语言的代码视图”，因为代码是最常见的产生含义的过程。然而，自从Noam Chomsky的工作以来，这种观点已逐渐被“语言的语法视图”所取代，“语言的语法视图”是儿童学习语言的想法，因为他们拥有一种与生俱来的机制，可以使他们掌握所长所用语言的语法。跟上。这种先天的机制被赋予了多种名称-首先是通用语法，然后是语言习得设备（LAD），最后是语言学院-但是尽管进行了数十年的研究尝试，但仍然没有证据表明这种设备确实存在。同时，越来越清楚的是，代码不是产生含义的唯一过程。另一个这样的过程是高等动物解释世界上发生的事情的能力，并且解释与编码不同，因为它不是基于固定规则，而是基于查尔斯·皮尔斯（Charles Peirce）所说的绑架过程。这使我们能够将语言的代码视图概括为语言的语义视图，该理论认为语言主要是一种语义活动，通过代码或解释过程赋予声音以含义。此外，这种观点为我们提供了一种新的理论框架，用于研究语言的起源，而无需诉诸任何deus ex machina装置。在此框架中，将语言的起源与生命的起源和心灵的起源进行了比较，因为这些巨大的转变产生了我们在自然界中发现的三大编码家族-有机编码，神经编码和文化编码-以及一项比较研究有可能使我们了解使语言起源的机制。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

背景与目标： ：已经发布了对本文的修订，可以通过本文顶部的链接进行访问。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :What leads humans to divide the social world into groups, preferring their own group and disfavoring others? Experiments with infants and young children suggest these tendencies are based on predispositions that emerge early in life and depend, in part, on natural language. Young infants prefer to look at a person who previously spoke their native language. Older infants preferentially accept toys from native-language speakers, and preschool children preferentially select native-language speakers as friends. Variations in accent are sufficient to evoke these social preferences, which are observed in infants before they produce or comprehend speech and are exhibited by children even when they comprehend the foreign-accented speech. Early-developing preferences for native-language speakers may serve as a foundation for later-developing preferences and conflicts among social groups.

背景与目标： ：是什么导致人类将社会世界分成群体，偏爱自己的群体而不利于他人？对婴幼儿进行的实验表明，这些趋势是基于生命早期出现的倾向，并且部分取决于自然语言。幼儿更喜欢看以前讲母语的人。大一点的婴儿优先接受母语使用者的玩具，而学龄前儿童则优先选择母语使用者。口音变化足以唤起这些社会偏好，这种偏好在婴儿产生或理解语音之前就已经观察到，并且即使他们理解具有外国口音的语音，也会被儿童表现出来。较早发展的母语使用者的偏爱可以作为较晚发展的偏爱和社会群体之间冲突的基础。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Studies of brain areas supporting deductive reasoning show inconsistent results, possibly because of the variety of tasks and baselines used. In two event-related functional magnetic imaging studies we employed a cognitive load paradigm to isolate the neural correlates of deductive reasoning and address the role (if any) of language in deduction. Healthy participants evaluated the logical status of arguments varying in deductive complexity but matched in linguistic complexity. Arguments also varied in lexical content, involving blocks and pseudo-words in Experiment I and faces and houses in Experiment II. For each experiment, subtraction of simple from complex arguments (collapsing across contents) revealed a network of activations disjoint from regions traditionally associated with linguistic processing and also disjoint from regions recruited by mere reading. We speculate that this network is divided into "core" and "support" regions. The latter include left frontal (BA 6, 47) and parietal (BA 7, 40) cortices, which maintain the formal structure of arguments. Core regions, in the left rostral (BA 10p) and bilateral medial (BA 8) prefrontal cortex, perform deductive operations. Finally, restricting the complex-simple subtraction to each lexical content uncovered additional activations which may reflect the binding of logical variables to lexical items.

背景与目标： ：支持演绎推理的大脑区域研究显示出不一致的结果，可能是因为使用了各种各样的任务和基准。在两项与事件相关的功能磁成像研究中，我们采用认知负荷范式来隔离演绎推理的神经相关性，并探讨语言在演绎中的作用（如果有）。健康的参与者评估了演绎复杂性不同但语言复杂性匹配的论证的逻辑状态。争论的词汇内容也各不相同，在实验一中涉及块和伪词，在实验二中涉及面孔和房屋。对于每个实验，从复杂的论证中减去简单的内容（在内容中折叠）显示了与传统上与语言处理相关联的区域脱节的激活网络，也与仅阅读而招募的区域脱节。我们推测此网络分为“核心”和“支持”区域。后者包括左额叶皮层（BA 6，47）和顶叶皮层（BA 7，40），它们保持了论证的形式结构。左延髓（BA 10p）和双侧内侧（BA 8）前额叶皮层的核心区域执行演绎操作。最后，将复杂简单的减法限制为每个词法内容，发现了可能反映逻辑变量与词法项的绑定的其他激活。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Health services research practices in the context of ethnic and cultural diversity are under scrutiny. One issue that needs to be considered is that of inclusion in, and exclusion from, research studies on the basis of language ability. We explore current reporting practice concerning recruitment of participants in health services research using examples from one 'high impact' journal and suggest ways in which future reporting can be strengthened. METHODS:Retrospective review of 207 'original research pieces' published in the BMJ. INCLUSION CRITERIA:articles published in 2003 and 2004 reporting research entailing direct communication between a researcher and health service users. A data extraction checklist was applied concerning the reporting of language-related decisions in recruitment. RESULTS:Eighty-four percent of the research articles did not engage with language issues at all. For most papers it was impossible to ascertain whether research was carried out in a monolingual population or whether researchers had effectively excluded non-primary language speakers in their recruitment procedures. Over half (n=34) of the papers that mentioned language did so in relation to exclusion criteria, usually without further comment. CONCLUSIONS:Reporting practice on language-related decisions in recruitment and on the exclusion of research participants on grounds of language ability needs to be improved. A checklist for authors, reviewers or editors is offered with the aim of encouraging fuller reporting on the language composition of source and sample populations, and greater consideration of any implications that exclusion/inclusion on the grounds of language may have for studies and their findings.

背景与目标： 背景：在种族和文化多样性背景下的卫生服务研究实践正在接受审查。需要考虑的一个问题是在语言能力的基础上将研究纳入或排除在研究之外。我们使用一本“高影响力”期刊中的示例探讨了有关招募健康服务研究参与者的当前报告做法，并提出了加强未来报告的方法。
方法：回顾性发表于BMJ的207篇“原始研究论文”。
纳入标准：2003年和2004年发表的报道研究的文章要求研究人员与卫生服务使用者之间进行直接交流。应用了数据提取清单，该清单涉及招聘中与语言相关的决策的报告。
结果：84％的研究文章完全不涉及语言问题。对于大多数论文，无法确定研究是在单一语言人群中进行的，还是研究人员在招募程序中是否有效排除了使用非主要语言的人。超过一半（n = 34）提到语言的论文与排除标准有关，通常无需进一步评论。
结论：关于招聘中与语言有关的决定以及基于语言能力的研究参与者被排除在外的报告实践有待改进。提供了针对作者，审稿人或编辑的清单，目的是鼓励对来源和样本人群的语言组成进行更全面的报告，并更多地考虑基于语言的排斥/包含可能对研究及其发现产生的任何影响。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The language abilities of 42 8-year-old preterm children with birth weight < 1,750 g from a 1-year birth cohort in northern Finland was studied with four different language tests. Control children from the same birth cohort matched individually with their preterm pairs for age, sex, twinship, mother's education, place of residence, birth order and family type were also studied. In psycholinguistic test, auditory skills did not differ between the preterm and the full-term groups. Nor did any other linguistic subtest differentiate between the groups. Instead, the preterm children scored significantly poorer than their controls in visual subtests. The study also showed that the poor performance in visual tests was associated with neonatal morbidity, namely neonatal infections, need for continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment and patent ductus arteriosus (PDA). When studying the language abilities of preterm children, we suggest that qualitative methods should be used to analyse linguistic skills. We recommend versatile follow-up of preterm children until school age.

背景与目标： ：通过四个不同的语言测试，研究了芬兰北部1岁出生队列中42名8岁以下体重小于1750 g的早产儿的语言能力。还研究了来自同一出生队列的对照儿童，分别与他们的早产配对相匹配，包括年龄，性别，双胞胎，母亲的教育程度，居住地，出生顺序和家庭类型。在心理语言测试中，早产组和足额组之间的听觉技能没有差异。其他语言子测验也没有区分这两组。取而代之的是，早产儿在视觉子测验中的得分明显低于对照组。该研究还表明，视力检查的不良表现与新生儿发病率（即新生儿感染），持续气道正压通气（CPAP）治疗和动脉导管未闭（PDA）的需要有关。在研究早产儿的语言能力时，我们建议应使用定性方法来分析语言能力。我们建议对学龄前儿童进行多方面的随访，直到学龄前。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:A formal and complete language assessment requires too much time and also tires the patient out during the first recovery stages after brain injury. The aim of this paper is to introduce a bedside screening, short and sensitive to diagnose aphasias in patients with brain injury. PATIENTS AND METHODS:The results of the Bedside Assessment of Language (BAL) was studied in 121 aphasic patients and in 77 dysarthric patients after brain injury. The five linguistic areas assessed in this short battery are: spontaneous language, comprehension, repetition, writing and reading. Each area has a maximum of 5 points, and the test has a total score of 25. Statistics tests used were: median test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Fisher's exact test, receiver operating characteristics curves and correlation coefficient. RESULTS:The BAL showed an excellent internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha coefficient: 0.9419); sensitivity was of 79.3% and specificity of 84.4%. CONCLUSIONS:These results indicate that the BAL has been a potentially useful tool for the diagnose of the type of aphasia and it has been sensitive to evolutionary changes in sub-acute stages of language disorders.

背景与目标： 简介：正式而完整的语言评估需要太多时间，并且在脑损伤后的最初恢复阶段会使患者感到疲倦。本文的目的是介绍一种床头筛查，该筛查筛查短而灵敏，可诊断出脑损伤患者的失语症。
病人和方法：在121例失语症患者和77例心律不齐的脑损伤患者中研究了床旁语言评估（BAL）的结果。简短介绍的五个语言领域是：自发的语言，理解，重复，写作和阅读。每个区域最多获得5分，该测试的总分为25。所使用的统计测试包括：中位数测试，Kruskal-Wallis测试，Fisher精确测试，接收器工作特性曲线和相关系数。
结果：BAL显示出极好的内部一致性可靠性（Cronbach's alpha系数：0.9419）；敏感性为79.3％，特异性为84.4％。
结论：这些结果表明，BAL已成为诊断失语症的潜在有用工具，并且对语言障碍亚急性阶段的进化变化敏感。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Current approaches to assessing agrammatism use data from restricted contexts, such as picture description and story telling tasks. There is evidence in the conversation analysis literature to suggest that conversational grammar may differ markedly from the grammar of such elicited language samples. The disparity between conversational and test grammar suggests that it is possible for the form of an agrammatic utterance to be motivated by the context in which it occurs. Thus, behaviours previously considered to be symptoms of agrammatism may be adaptations to talking in different environments. This study analyses two distinctive test response forms made by two agrammatic speakers, and discusses whether they might be strategic adaptations to testing rather than symptoms of impairment.

背景与目标： ：目前评估语法的方法使用来自受限上下文的数据，例如图片描述和讲故事的任务。会话分析文献中有证据表明，会话语法可能与此类语言样本的语法明显不同。会话语法和测试语法之间的差异表明，语法发声的形式有可能受到其发生的上下文的激励。因此，以前被认为是语法特征的行为可能是适应不同环境中的谈话。这项研究分析了两位讲语法的人做出的两种独特的测试反应形式，并讨论了它们是否可能是对测试的战略适应，而不是障碍的症状。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Acoustic analyses of eight different languages/dialects had revealed a language universal: Three spectral factors consistently appeared in analyses of power fluctuations of spoken sentences divided by critical-band filters into narrow frequency bands. Examining linguistic implications of these factors seems important to understand how speech sounds carry linguistic information. Here we show the three general categories of the English phonemes, i.e., vowels, sonorant consonants, and obstruents, to be discriminable in the Cartesian space constructed by these factors: A factor related to frequency components above 3,300 Hz was associated only with obstruents (e.g., /k/ or /z/), and another factor related to frequency components around 1,100 Hz only with vowels (e.g., /a/ or /i/) and sonorant consonants (e.g., /w/, /r/, or /m/). The latter factor highly correlated with the hypothetical concept of sonority or aperture in phonology. These factors turned out to connect the linguistic and acoustic aspects of speech sounds systematically.

背景与目标： ：对八种不同语言/方言的声学分析显示出一种通用的语言：在口语的功率波动分析中，始终存在三个频谱因素，这些问题被临界带滤波器划分为狭窄的频带。检查这些因素的语言含义对于理解语音如何携带语言信息似乎很重要。在这里，我们显示了由这些因素构成的笛卡尔空间中可辨别的英语音素的三个一般类别，即元音，回音辅音和假言：与3,300 Hz以上的频率分量相关的因素仅与假言有关（例如，/ k /或/ z /），以及与仅在元音（例如/ a /或/ i /）和子音辅音（例如/ w /，/ r /或/ m /）。后一因素与语音学中声音或孔径的假设概念高度相关。这些因素证明可以系统地连接语音的语言和声学方面。