BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The present review examines the moderating role of ideology on the effects of war, armed conflict, and terrorism on youth. Ideology is an important factor given the central role played by religio-political ideology and nationalism in present-day conflicts. Ideologies or worldviews represent cognitive frameworks that imbue the traumatic situation with meaning and order. Analysis of the pool of studies identified three categories of ideologically based moderating factors, each representing an aspect of social construction of traumatic events, namely, religion, political ideology, and self-concept. The two closely related categories of religion and politico-religious beliefs showed both positive and negative effects on psychological and psychiatric outcomes among youth. The third category of different aspects of self-concept yielded consistently positive moderating effects. The mechanisms by which each category of ideology moderates effects of exposure to war, armed conflict, and terrorism are discussed, and research and clinical implications are presented.

背景与目标： ：本综述探讨了意识形态在战争，武装冲突和恐怖主义对青年的影响方面的适度作用。鉴于宗教政治思想和民族主义在当今冲突中发挥着核心作用，意识形态是一个重要因素。意识形态或世界观代表了认知框架，将意义和顺序灌输给创伤状况。对研究库的分析确定了三类基于意识形态的调节因素，每一类代表创伤事件的社会建构的一个方面，即宗教，政治意识形态和自我概念。宗教和政治宗教信仰这两个密切相关的类别对青年的心理和精神病学结果既有正面的影响，也有负面的影响。自我概念不同方面的第三类产生了持续的积极调节作用。讨论了每种意识形态减缓战争，武装冲突和恐怖主义的影响的机制，并介绍了研究和临床意义。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :In different countries responses to important bioethical issues are different, as exemplified by the attitudes towards the voluntary and active forms of medical euthanasia. But why is this the case? My suggestion is that the roots of the variety are, to be considerable degree, ideological. The most important present-day political ideologies all have their roots in the prevailing doctrines of moral and social philosophy. In the paper these doctrines are outlined and the predicted response towards active voluntary euthanasia within each model is sketched. The conclusion reached is that while it would in some countries be dangerous to allow euthanasia in the prevailing circumstances, the solution is not to hinder the legalization process but to alter the circumstances.

背景与目标： ：在不同的国家，对重要的生物伦理问题的反应是不同的，这体现在对自愿和主动形式的医疗安乐死的态度上。但是为什么会这样呢？我的建议是，该品种的根源在很大程度上是意识形态的。当今最重要的政治意识形态都源于流行的道德和社会哲学学说。在本文中，概述了这些理论，并概述了每个模型中对主动自愿性安乐死的预期反应。得出的结论是，虽然在某些国家中，在当前情况下允许安乐死是危险的，但解决方案不是阻止合法化进程，而是改变情况。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Authoritarian ideology, including religious conservativism, endorses obedience to authority and physical punishment of children. Although this association has been studied at the level of the family, little research has been conducted on whether conservativism in the broader community context correlates with the mistreatment of children. The purpose of this study was to determine whether this relation between conservativism and physical punishment of children extends to child abuse rates at the community level. Predictors included county-level religious and political conservativism and demographic variables. Political and religious conservativism covaried, and both were inversely related to child abuse rates. Population density was strongly related to rates of maltreatment and with demographic factors controlled, religious conservativism but not political conservativism continued to predict rates of child abuse. The results suggest that community factors related to social disorganization may be more important than religious or political affiliation in putting children at risk for maltreatment.

背景与目标： ：包括宗教保守主义在内的威权主义意识形态赞成服从儿童的权威和身体上的惩罚。尽管已经在家庭层面研究了这种联系，但在更广泛的社区背景下，保守主义是否与虐待儿童相关联的研究很少。这项研究的目的是确定保守主义和对儿童的身体惩罚之间的这种关系是否扩展到社区一级的儿童虐待率。预测因素包括县级宗教和政治保守主义以及人口统计变量。政治和宗教保守主义是协变的，两者都与虐待儿童的比率成反比。人口密度与虐待率密切相关，在人口因素受到​​控制的情况下，宗教保守主义而非政治保守主义继续预测虐待儿童的发生率。结果表明，与社会混乱有关的社区因素可能比宗教或政治背景更重要，这使儿童有遭受虐待的风险。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: TOPIC:The concepts and research that underpin our understanding of how the brain is the organ of the mind. PURPOSE:To describe the dynamic nature of nervous system functioning and development; to discuss how the nervous system changes anatomically throughout the lifespan; to examine the vital role and interaction of genetics and environment; and to discuss the relationship among the brain, neurotransmission, genes, and psychiatric illness. SOURCES:Published literature. CONCLUSIONS:The latest research from the neurosciences lays to rest any suggestion that psychiatric illnesses are psychologically induced.

背景与目标： 主题：概念和研究奠定了我们对大脑如何成为大脑器官的理解的基础。
目的：描述神经系统功能和发展的动态特性；讨论神经系统在整个生命周期中的解剖结构变化；研究遗传学与环境的重要作用及其相互作用；并讨论大脑，神经传递，基因和精神病之间的关系。
资料来源：已出版的文献。
结论：神经科学的最新研究搁置了关于精神疾病是由心理诱发的任何暗示。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Evidence from three studies reveals a critical difference in self-control as a function of political ideology. Specifically, greater endorsement of political conservatism (versus liberalism) was associated with greater attention regulation and task persistence. Moreover, this relationship is shown to stem from varying beliefs in freewill; specifically, the association between political ideology and self-control is mediated by differences in the extent to which belief in freewill is endorsed, is independent of task performance or motivation, and is reversed when freewill is perceived to impede (rather than enhance) self-control. Collectively, these findings offer insight into the self-control consequences of political ideology by detailing conditions under which conservatives and liberals are better suited to engage in self-control and outlining the role of freewill beliefs in determining these conditions.

背景与目标： ：来自三项研究的证据表明，自我控制与政治意识形态的作用存在重大差异。具体而言，对政治保守主义（相对于自由主义）的更大认可与更大的注意力调节和任务持久性相关。而且，这种关系被证明源于对自由意志的不同信念。具体而言，政治意识形态与自我控制之间的联系是通过以下方式来介导的：在认可自由意志的程度上，与任务绩效或动机无关的差异，以及当人们认为自由意志阻碍（而不是增强）自我意识时会逆转。控制。总而言之，这些发现通过详细说明保守派和自由主义者更适合进行自我控制的条件，并概述了自由意志信念在确定这些条件中的作用，从而洞察了政治意识形态的自我控制后果。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Previous notions of science as impartial and value-neutral have been refuted by contemporary views of science as influenced by social, political and ideological values. By locating nursing science in the dominant political ideology of liberalism, the author examines how nursing knowledge is influenced by liberal philosophical assumptions. The central tenets of liberal political philosophy - individualism, egalitarianism, freedom, tolerance, neutrality, and a free-market economy - are primarily manifested in relation to: (i) the individualistic focus of our science; (ii) our view of society as essentially egalitarian and equitable; (iii) our preference for politically neutral knowledge development, and (iv) an economy of knowledge development that supports rather than challenges the status quo. I argue that exposing, rather than ignoring, the liberal ideological values inherent in nursing science will render these assumptions open to debate, stimulate ongoing development of critically oriented knowledge, and increase our capacity to influence the social, political and economic determinants of health.

背景与目标： ：现代社会对科学的看法被社会，政治和意识形态价值观所反驳，以前的科学观念是公正和价值中立的。通过将护理科学定位于自由主义的主流政治意识形态中，作者研究了护理知识如何受到自由主义哲学假设的影响。自由主义政治哲学的中心宗旨是个人主义，平均主义，自由，宽容，中立和自由市场经济，主要体现在以下方面：（i）科学的个人主义焦点； （ii）我们认为社会本质上是平等的和平等的； （iii）我们偏爱政治上中立的知识发展，以及（iv）支持而不是挑战现状的知识发展经济。我认为，揭露而不是忽略护理科学固有的自由意识形态价值观，将使这些假设值得商debate，激发了以批判为导向的知识的不断发展，并增强了我们影响健康的社会，政治和经济决定因素的能力。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Medical compliance researchers have produced more than 4000 scientific papers in the past two decades, but their research into the determinants of non-compliance has been inconclusive. This paper argues that the popularity of compliance and the uncertainty over its determinants can be understood if compliance is analyzed as an ideology that assumes and justifies physician authority. I explore compliance as a problematic concept, looking at its assumptions and its influences on clinical practice. The concept of patient compliance has a social history linked to the struggle to create and maintain physician control over infant feeding technology earlier in this century. But while physicians were successful in that struggle, they have never exercised complete control over health care products. Compliance must be reconceptualized and its research reoriented if it is accurately to portray medication usage and related health behaviors outside the clinic.

背景与目标： ：过去20年来，医学依从性研究人员已发表了4000多篇科学论文，但他们对不依从性决定因素的研究尚无定论。本文认为，如果将依从性作为假设并证明医师权威的意识形态进行分析，则可以理解依从性的普遍性及其决定因素的不确定性。我将依从性作为一个有问题的概念进行探讨，考察其假设及其对临床实践的影响。患者依从性的概念具有与本世纪初为创建和维持医师对婴儿喂养技术的控制而进行的斗争有关的社会历史。但是，尽管医生们在这一斗争中取得了成功，但他们从未对保健产品实施完全控制。如果要准确地描述诊所外的药物使用情况和相关的健康行为，则必须重新概念化合规性，并重新调整研究方向。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :High activity noise levels that result in detrimental effects on speech communication have been measured in preschools. To find out if different pedagogical ideologies affect the perceived loudness and levels of noise, a questionnaire study inquiring about the experience of loudness and voice symptoms was carried out in Iceland in eight private preschools, called "Hjalli model", and in six public preschools. Noise levels were also measured in the preschools. Background variables (stress level, age, length of working career, education, smoking, and number of children per teacher) were also analyzed in order to determine how much they contributed toward voice symptoms and the experience of noisiness. Results indicate that pedagogical ideology is a significant factor for predicting noise and its consequences. Teachers in the preschool with tighter pedagogical control of discipline (the "Hjalli model") experienced lower activity noise loudness than teachers in the preschool with a more relaxed control of behavior (public preschool). Lower noise levels were also measured in the "Hjalli model" preschool and fewer "Hjalli model" teachers reported voice symptoms. Public preschool teachers experienced more stress than "Hjalli model" teachers and the stress level was, indeed, the background variable that best explained the voice symptoms and the teacher's perception of a noisy environment. Discipline, structure, and organization in the type of activity predicted the activity noise level better than the number of children in the group. Results indicate that pedagogical ideology is a significant factor for predicting self-reported noise and its consequences.

背景与目标： ：在学龄前儿童中已经测量到高活动噪音水平，会对语音交流产生不利影响。为了了解不同的教学思想是否会影响响度和噪声水平，在冰岛的八所私立幼儿园（称为“ Hjalli模式”）和六所公立幼儿园进行了问卷调查，以调查响度和声音症状的体验。在学龄前儿童中也测量了噪音水平。还分析了背景变量（压力水平，年龄，工作时间长短，教育程度，吸烟情况以及每位教师的孩子人数），以确定它们对语音症状和嘈杂经历的贡献程度。结果表明，教学思想是预测噪声及其后果的重要因素。与对行为进行更轻松控制的学前班教师（公共学前班）相比，对学前教育进行更严格的学科控制的教师（“ Hjalli模型”）活动噪音响度更低。在“ Hjalli模型”学龄前儿童中也测得较低的噪音水平，较少的“ Hjalli模型”教师报告了声音症状。与“ Hjalli模型”教师相比，公立学前教师承受的压力更大，压力水平确实是最能解释语音症状和教师对嘈杂环境感知的背景变量。活动类型的纪律，结构和组织预测活动噪音水平要好于该组中的儿童人数。结果表明，教学思想是预测自我报告的噪声及其后果的重要因素。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Processes through which parental ideology is transmitted to children-especially at a young age prior to the formation of political beliefs-remain poorly understood. Given recent evidence that political ideology is associated with neural responses to cognitive conflict in adults, we tested the exploratory hypothesis that children's neurocognitive responses to conflict may also differ depending on their parents' ideology. We assessed relations between parental political ideology and children's neurocognitive responses to conflict, as measured by the N2 component of the event-related potential. Children aged 5-7 completed an age-appropriate flanker task while electroencephalography was recorded, and the N2 was scored to incongruent versus congruent flankers to index conflict processing. Because previous research documents heightened liberal-conservative differences in threat-relevant contexts, each trial of the task was preceded by an angry face (threat-relevant) or comparison face (happy or neutral). An effect of parental ideology on the conflict-related N2 emerged in the threat condition, such that the N2 was larger among children of liberals compared with children of moderates and conservatives. These findings suggest that individual differences in neurocognitive responses to conflict, heightened in the context of threat, may reflect a more general pattern of individual differences that, in adults, relates to political ideology.

背景与目标： ：人们对父母意识形态（特别是在形成政治信仰之前的年幼年龄）传播给孩子的过程仍然知之甚少。鉴于最近的证据表明政治意识形态与成年人对认知冲突的神经反应有关，我们检验了探索性假设，即儿童对冲突的神经认知反应也可能取决于父母的意识形态而有所不同。我们评估了父母的政治思想与儿童对冲突的神经认知反应之间的关系，这是通过事件相关电位的N2成分来衡量的。 5至7岁的儿童完成了适合年龄的侧翼任务，同时记录了脑电图，并且将N2分为不相称与相称的侧翼以对冲突处理进行评分。由于先前的研究文献在威胁相关环境中加剧了保守主义保守主义的差异，因此在每次执行任务之前，都要先生气一张脸（与威胁相关）或一张比较脸（高兴或中立）。在威胁条件下，父母意识形态对与冲突有关的N2产生了影响，因此与温和派和保守派儿童相比，自由派儿童中的N2更大。这些发现表明，在威胁的背景下，对冲突的神经认知反应中的个体差异可能会反映出一种更普遍的个体差异模式，这种模式在成年人中与政治意识形态有关。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Anti-smoking campaigns are widely viewed as a success case in public health policy. However, smoking rates continue to vary widely across U.S. states and the success of anti-smoking campaigns is contingent upon states' adoption of anti-smoking policies. Though state anti-smoking policy is a product of a political process, studies of the effect of policies on smoking prevalence have largely ignored how politics shapes policy adoption, which, in turn, impact state health outcomes. Policies may also have different effects in different political contexts. This study tests how state politics affects smoking prevalence both through the policies that states adopt (with policies playing a mediating role on health outcomes) or as an effect modifier of behavior (tobacco control policies may work differently in states in which the public is more or less receptive to them). The study uses publicly available data to construct a time-series cross-section dataset of state smoking prevalence, state political context, cigarette excise taxes, indoor smoking policies, and demographic characteristics from 1995 to 2013. Political ideology is measured using a validated indicator of the ideology of state legislatures and of the citizens of a state. We assess the relationship between state political context and state smoking prevalence rates adjusting for demographic characteristics and accounting for the mediating/moderating role of state policies with time and state fixed effects. We find that more liberal state ideology predicts lower adult smoking rates, but that the relationship between state ideology and adult smoking prevalence is only partly explained by state anti-smoking policies.

背景与目标： ：反吸烟运动被广泛认为是公共卫生政策中的成功案例。但是，美国各州的吸烟率仍存在很大差异，反吸烟运动的成功取决于各州采取反吸烟政策的情况。尽管国家禁烟政策是政治过程的产物，但是对政策对吸烟率影响的研究却很大程度上忽略了政治如何影响政策的采用，进而影响了国家的健康结果。政策在不同的政治环境中也可能产生不同的影响。这项研究测试了州政治如何通过州采用的政策（在健康结果中起中介作用的政策）或作为行为的效果修正器（在更多公众或更多州使用控烟政策的方式不同）来影响吸烟率。对他们的接受程度较低）。该研究使用可公开获得的数据构建了1995年至2013年各州吸烟率，各州政治背景，香烟消费税，室内吸烟政策和人口统计学特征的时间序列横截面数据集。国家立法机关和国家公民的意识形态。我们评估了州政治背景和州吸烟流行率之间的关系，并根据人口特征进行了调整，并考虑了具有时间和州固定效应的州政策的中介/调节作用。我们发现，更加自由的州意识形态预示着成年人吸烟率会降低，但是州意识形态与成人吸烟率之间的关系仅由州反吸烟政策部分解释。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Debates are occurring about the relative contribution of genetic versus social factors to racial health disparities. An ideology of race is manifested in genetic arguments for the etiology of racial health disparities. There is also growing attention to people of mixed race since the 2000 US Census enabled them to be counted. Consideration of the complex issues raised by the existence of people of mixed race may bring clarity to the debates about racial health disparities, offer a challenge to the ideology of race, and afford important insights for the practice of research involving race.

背景与目标： ：关于遗传因素与社会因素对种族健康差异的相对贡献正在发生争论。种族意识形态在种族健康差异病因的遗传论证中得到体现。自从2000年美国人口普查使计数混合种族以来，人们对混合种族的关注也日益受到关注。考虑到混合种族人民的存在所带来的复杂问题，可能使有关种族健康差异的辩论更加清晰，对种族意识形态提出挑战，并为涉及种族的研究实践提供重要见解。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A study of food ideology and eating behavior in a Malay village demonstrates that the relationship between belief and action is complex and not always predictable. Over-reliance upon stated beliefs, and generalizations derived from particular ecological settings, have influenced investigators into making universal and logical statements about Malay eating behavior and its health consequences--a logic which, however, does not always jibe with reality. Food ideology, like any other portion of a belief system, is subject to innovation, interpretation and rationalization, and contains within it 'rules to break rules' which assure the continued integrity of the symbolic system by patterning what might otherwise be seen as rifts in its fabric. An understanding of eating behavior must be based both on a knowledge of the subsidiary, as well as primary, clauses of food ideology, and on direct observation of the behaviors elicited by these beliefs and modified by the setting, the situation and the individual.

背景与目标： ：对马来人村庄的饮食意识形态和饮食行为的研究表明，信念与行动之间的关系是复杂的，并非总是可预测的。过度依赖既定的信念和源自特定生态环境的概括性影响研究人员对马来人的饮食行为及其健康后果做出普遍和逻辑的陈述-然而，这种逻辑并不总是与现实相吻合。与意识形态系统的任何其他部分一样，食品意识形态也要进行创新，解释和合理化，并在其中包含“打破规则的规则”，这些规则通过对可能被视为裂痕的东西进行图案化来确保符号系统的持续完整性。它的面料。对饮食行为的理解既要基于对食物意识形态的辅助条款的理解，又要基于对食物意识形态的主要条款的了解，并且必须基于对这些信念所引发的行为的直接观察，并根据环境，情况和个人的不同而改变。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The manifestly required qualifications in job advertisements in the Journal of the Swedish Dental Association were analyzed as indicators of the organizational ideology in the Swedish Public Dental Health Service from the employers' viewpoint. All job advertisements that concerned dentists and managers on different hierarchical levels in general dentistry from January 1990 to December 1998 were included (n = 1152). The number of vacancies was 1856. The textual material was analyzed by content analysis, permitting quantitative descriptions of the text and analysis of the latent characteristics. Words and phrases were classified into categories on different levels of abstraction developed from the theoretical background and the purpose of the study. Altogether 5705 required qualifications were categorized. The inter-coder reliability of the first-level categorization resulted in 81% correspondence of the classification, and lambda = 0.90. Qualifications were more frequently required with higher hierarchical job positions, and personality characteristics were more frequent than technical competence and knowledge. Qualifications interpreted as related to economic goals occurred more frequently than those related to odontological goals. The qualification demands reflected the language of human resource management (HRM), emphasizing the 'soft' people-centered approach and was interpreted as an 'ideal' model of HRM. Dentists were regarded as a profitable organizational asset rather than participants in relations with patients. In conclusion, the results indicate an organizational ideology primarily of economic character.

背景与目标： ：从雇主的角度出发，分析了《瑞典牙科协会杂志》上招聘广告中明确要求的资格，以此作为瑞典公共牙科保健服务组织意识形态的指标。从1990年1月到1998年12月，所有与普通牙科医生不同层次的牙医和管理人员有关的招聘广告都被包括在内（n = 1152）。空缺数目是1856年。通过内容分析对文本材料进行了分析，从而可以对文本进行定量描述并分析其潜在特征。根据理论背景和研究目的，将单词和短语分为不同抽象级别的类别。总共对5705个要求的资格进行了分类。一级分类的编码器间可靠性导致分类的81％对应性，λ= 0.90。较高的等级职位要求更高的资格要求，而个性特征则比技术能力和知识更为频繁。被解释为与经济目标有关的资格比与牙科学目标有关的资格发生的频率更高。资格要求反映了人力资源管理（HRM）的语言，强调“以人为本”的“软”方法，并被解释为人力资源管理的“理想”模型。牙医被认为是一种有利可图的组织资产，而不是与患者关系的参与者。总之，结果表明了主要具有经济性质的组织意识形态。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The concept of continuity of care is part of the framework on which the ideology and teaching of family practice is based. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the ideals and reality of continuity of care as perceived by Norwegian family physicians. A representative sample of 207 physicians answered a mailed questionnaire related to continuity of care. Eighty percent of the physicians found the concept of continuity important or very important to the ideology of family practice. There were, however, significant statistical and clinically important discrepancies between ideals and reality. If standards are too ambitious or unrealistic to achieve, they often become counterproductive. Two basic ways to correct this discrepancy are discussed: improving reality by increasing chronological care and lowering the ideals by de-emphasizing comprehensive care. The ideals of continuity of care in family practice were set more than 20 years ago. As the field of family practice matures, more realistic goals may be indicated to prevent individual professional burnout and loss of credibility as a specialty.

背景与目标： ：连续护理的概念是家庭实践的思想和教学所基于的框架的一部分。本研究的目的是评估挪威家庭医生认为的护理连续性的理想和现实情况。 207位医生的代表性样本回答了有关护理连续性的邮寄问卷。 80％的医生发现连续性的概念对于家庭实践的思想体系非常重要或非常重要。但是，理想与现实之间存在统计学上和临床上重要的差异。如果标准过于雄心勃勃或不切实际，则往往会适得其反。讨论了纠正这种差异的两种基本方法：通过增加按时间顺序排列的护理来改善现实，以及通过不强调全面护理来降低理想。二十多年前就确立了家庭实践中持续护理的理想。随着家庭实践领域的成熟，可能会提出更切合实际的目标，以防止个人职业倦怠和丧失专长的信誉。