BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Research on multiple sclerosis (MS) frequently requires typing for allele HLA-DRB1*1501, which the complexities of the HLA system can restrict to specialised histocompatibility laboratories. To overcome this limitation, we have implemented a simple, robust and highly specific method for DRB1*1501 detection. One single-tube polymerase-chain reaction (PCR) per DNA sample allows for detecting DR2 individuals. The spare PCR products of these are then sequenced to identify allele DRB1*1501 by comparison with the official, publicly accessible HLA database. This approach, much simpler than previously available methods, should facilitate research on MS by making accurate identification of DRB1*1501 accessible to neuroscience laboratories.

背景与目标： ：对多发性硬化症（MS）的研究通常需要输入等位基因HLA-DRB1 * 1501，HLA系统的复杂性可能会限制于专门的组织相容性实验室。为克服此限制，我们为DRB1 * 1501检测实现了一种简单，可靠且高度特定的方法。每个DNA样品一个单管聚合酶链反应（PCR）即可检测DR2个体。然后，通过与官方的可公开访问的HLA数据库进行比较，对这些样品的备用PCR产物进行测序，以鉴定等位基因DRB1 * 1501。这种方法比以前可用的方法简单得多，应该通过使神经科学实验室可以准确识别DRB1 * 1501来促进对MS的研究。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Adaptive behaviors increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction and improve the quality of life. However, it is often difficult to identify optimal behaviors in real life due to the complexity of the decision maker's environment and social dynamics. As a result, although many different brain areas and circuits are involved in decision making, evolutionary and learning solutions adopted by individual decision makers sometimes produce suboptimal outcomes. Although these problems are exacerbated in numerous neurological and psychiatric disorders, their underlying neurobiological causes remain incompletely understood. In this review, theoretical frameworks in economics and machine learning and their applications in recent behavioral and neurobiological studies are summarized. Examples of such applications in clinical domains are also discussed for substance abuse, Parkinson's disease, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, mood disorders, and autism. Findings from these studies have begun to lay the foundations necessary to improve diagnostics and treatment for various neurological and psychiatric disorders.

背景与目标： ：适应性行为增加了生存和繁殖的可能性，并改善了生活质量。但是，由于决策者环境和社会动态的复杂性，通常很难确定现实生活中的最佳行为。结果，尽管决策过程涉及许多不同的大脑区域和电路，但是个别决策者采用的进化和学习解决方案有时会产生次优的结果。尽管这些问题在许多神经系统疾病和精神疾病中加剧了，但其潜在的神经生物学原因仍未完全理解。在这篇综述中，总结了经济学和机器学习的理论框架及其在最近的行为和神经生物学研究中的应用。在药物滥用，帕金森氏病，注意力缺陷/多动障碍，精神分裂症，情绪障碍和自闭症等方面，也讨论了在临床领域中此类应用的实例。这些研究的发现已开始奠定改善各种神经和精神疾病的诊断和治疗所必需的基础。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Cognitive neuroscience of creativity has been extensively studied using non-invasive electrical recordings from the scalp called electroencephalograms (EEGs) and event related potentials (ERPs). The paper discusses major aspects of performing research using EEG/ERP based experiments including the recording of the signals, removing noise, estimating ERP signals, and signal analysis for better understanding of the neural correlates of processes involved in creativity. Important factors to be kept in mind to record clean EEG signal in creativity research are discussed. The recorded EEG signal can be corrupted by various sources of noise and methodologies to handle the presence of unwanted artifacts and filtering noise are presented followed by methods to estimate ERPs from the EEG signals from multiple trials. The EEG and ERP signals are further analyzed using various techniques including spectral analysis, coherence analysis, and non-linear signal analysis. These analysis techniques provide a way to understand the spatial activations and temporal development of large scale electrical activity in the brain during creative tasks. The use of this methodology will further enhance our understanding the processes neural and cognitive processes involved in creativity.

背景与目标： ：创造性的认知神经科学已被广泛使用来自头皮的非侵入性电记录（称为脑电图（EEG）和事件相关电位（ERP））进行研究。本文讨论了使用基于EEG / ERP的实验进行研究的主要方面，包括信号记录，噪声消除，ERP信号估计以及信号分析，以更好地理解与创造力有关的过程的神经相关性。讨论了在创造力研究中记录干净的EEG信号时应牢记的重要因素。记录的EEG信号可能会受到各种噪声源的破坏，并且会出现处理有害伪影的方法，并提出滤波噪声，然后介绍从多次试验的EEG信号中估计ERP的方法。使用各种技术进一步分析EEG和ERP信号，包括频谱分析，相干分析和非线性信号分析。这些分析技术提供了一种在创造性任务期间了解大脑中大规模电活动的空间激活和时间发展的方式。这种方法的使用将进一步增强我们对创造力所涉及的神经和认知过程的理解。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Objective: A cognitive neuroscience perspective seeks to understand behavior, in this case the comorbidity of cannabis abuse and conduct disorder/conduct problems, in terms of dysfunction in cognitive processes underpinned by neural processes. The goal of this review is to articulate a cognitive neuroscience account of this comorbidity. Methods: Literature on the following issues will be reviewed: (i) the longitudinal relationship between cannabis abuse and conduct disorder/conduct problems (CD/CP); (ii) the extent to which there are genetic and environmental (specifically maltreatment) factors that underpin this relationship; (iii) forms of neurocognitive function that are reported dysfunctional in CD/CP and also, when dysfunctional, appear to be risk factors for future cannabis abuse; and (iv) the extent to which cannabis abuse may further compromise these systems leading to increased future abuse and greater conduct problems. Results: CD/CP typically predate cannabis abuse. There appear to be shared genetic factors that contribute to the relationship between CD/CP and cannabis abuse. Moreover, trauma exposure increases risk for both cannabis abuse and CP/CD. One form of neurocognitive dysfunction, response disinhibition, that likely exacerbates the symptomatology of many individuals with CD also appears to increase the risk for cannabis abuse. The literature with respect to other forms of neurocognitive dysfunction remains inconclusive. Conclusions: Based on the literature, a causal model of the comorbidity of cannabis abuse and CD/CP is developed.

背景与目标： ：目的：认知神经科学的观点旨在了解行为，在这种情况下是滥用大麻和行为/行为问题的合并症，涉及以神经过程为基础的认知过程中的功能障碍。这篇综述的目的是阐明这种合并症的认知神经科学解释。方法：将审查有关以下问题的文献：（i）大麻滥用与行为障碍/品行问题（CD / CP）之间的纵向关系； （ii）遗传和环境（特别是虐待）因素在多大程度上支撑了这种关系； （iii）在CD / CP中据报告功能障碍的神经认知功能形式，以及当功能障碍时，也似乎是未来滥用大麻的危险因素； （iv）大麻滥用在多大程度上可能进一步损害这些系统，从而导致未来滥用和行为问题增加。结果：CD / CP通常早于大麻滥用。似乎存在共同的遗传因素，导致CD / CP与大麻滥用之间的关系。此外，遭受创伤会增加大麻滥用和CP / CD的风险。一种神经认知功能障碍，即反应抑制异常，可能加剧许多CD患者的症状，也似乎增加了滥用大麻的风险。关于其他形式的神经认知功能障碍的文献仍无定论。结论：根据文献，建立了大麻滥用与CD / CP合并症的因果模型。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Although rabies, or hydrophobia, is one of the so-called forgotten tropical diseases, it still kills thousands of people each year, especially children living in rural areas of Asia and Africa. This terrible disease was once a much-feared threat throughout Europe, whose terrifying symptoms were described in a vast body of literature that was based on both science and popular beliefs. One notable individual whose name is linked to the fight against this disease is Adelchi Negri, a brilliant but unfortunate pupil of Camillo Golgi. At the beginning of the 20th century, Negri observed peculiar formations in the brains of infected animals: known as Negri's bodies, these formations became an important diagnostic tool used in anti-rabies institutes all over the world.

背景与目标： 尽管狂犬病或恐水症是所谓的被遗忘的热带病之一，但每年仍然有数千人丧生，特别是生活在亚洲和非洲农村地区的儿童。这种可怕的疾病曾经是整个欧洲令人恐惧的威胁，其可怕的症状在大量基于科学和大众信仰的文献中都有描述。一位与抗击这种疾病有关的著名人物是阿德尔奇·内格里（Adelchi Negri），他是卡米洛·高尔基（Camillo Golgi）的聪明但不幸的学生。 20世纪初，尼格里（Negri）在被感染动物的大脑中观察到奇特的结构：被称为尼格里（Negri）的尸体，这些结构成为全世界反狂犬病研究所使用的重要诊断工具。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Eye movements can have serious confounding effects in cognitive neuroscience experiments. Therefore, participants are commonly asked to fixate. Regardless, participants will make so-called fixational eye movements under attempted fixation, which are thought to be necessary to prevent perceptual fading. Neural changes related to these eye movements could potentially explain previously reported neural decoding and neuroimaging results under attempted fixation. In previous work, under attempted fixation and passive viewing, we found no evidence for systematic eye movements. Here, however, we show that participants' eye movements are systematic under attempted fixation when active viewing is demanded by the task. Since eye movements directly affect early visual cortex activity, commonly used for neural decoding, our findings imply alternative explanations for previously reported results in neural decoding.

背景与目标： ：眼睛运动可能在认知神经科学实验中产生严重的混淆作用。因此，通常要求参与者注视。无论如何，参与者将在尝试的注视下进行所谓的注视眼运动，这被认为对于防止知觉褪色是必要的。与这些眼球运动有关的神经变化可能潜在地解释了先前报道的在尝试注视下的神经解码和神经影像学结果。在以前的工作中，在尝试注视和被动观察的情况下，我们没有发现系统的眼球运动的证据。但是，在这里，我们显示，当任务需要主动观看时，在尝试注视的情况下，参与者的眼球运动是系统的。由于眼球运动直接影响通常用于神经解码的早期视觉皮层活动，因此我们的发现暗示了对先前报道的神经解码结果的替代解释。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Research over the last several decades has shown that the health of the body is intimately tied to the strength of our social connections, but why? This article reviews evidence from affective and social neuroscience suggesting that, because of the importance of social ties for mammalian survival, threats to social connection are processed by some of the same neural regions that process basic threats to survival and consequently trigger physiological threat responses that have negative health implications. Likewise, social support is processed by some of the same neural regions that process safety or protection from basic threats and inhibit these same health-relevant physiological threat responses.

背景与目标： ：过去几十年的研究表明，身体的健康状况与我们的社交联系紧密相关，但是为什么呢？本文回顾了来自情感和社会神经科学的证据，这些证据表明，由于社会纽带对哺乳动物生存的重要性，对社会联系的威胁由处理基本生存威胁并因此触发生理威胁反应的某些神经区域处理。对健康的负面影响。同样，社会支持由处理安全或免受基本威胁并抑制这些与健康相关的生理威胁响应的相同神经区域中的一些处理。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Creatine's effects on brain energy metabolism raise the possibility of developing a new therapeutic strategy in depression focusing on the treatment of metabolic hypoactive brain areas. Previous creatine augmentation studies in patients with major depression showed a beneficial effect. Eighteen patients (14 women) with major depression not responding to previous 3 weeks of antidepressant treatment were enrolled into a pilot, dose finding, 4-week double-blind parallel augmentation study where creatine monohydrate 5 or 10 g daily or placebo was added to ongoing SSRIs/SNRIs/NASA treatment. Rating scales included the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale and the Clinical Global Impression Severity scale. Overall, there was no difference between creatine administered at 5 or 10 g daily and its corresponding placebos. Two female patients on creatine augmentation, but none on the placebo, showed early improvement of more than 50% reduction in Hamilton Depression Rating Scale after 2 weeks of creatine treatment. No clinically relevant side effects were reported. This preliminary study seems to suggest that the strategy using creatine augmentation in major depressive women showing no 'real-life response' to 3 weeks of treatment with SSRIs/SNRIs/NASA treatment is of no advantage compared with placebo. However, such creatine augmentation may still induce a more rapid response in a small subgroup of these female patients.

背景与目标： 肌酸对脑能量代谢的影响增加了开发针对抑郁症的新治疗策略的可能性，这种治疗策略的重点是代谢性脑功能低下区域的治疗。先前对重度抑郁症患者进行的肌酸增强研究显示出有益的效果。 18名重度抑郁症患者（14名女性）对之前的3周抗抑郁药治疗无反应，参加了一项试点，剂量确定，为期4周的双盲平行增强研究，其中将每天5或10 g的肌酸一水合物或安慰剂加入治疗中SSRI / SNRIs / NASA处理。评分量表包括汉密尔顿抑郁量表和临床总体印象严重度量表。总体而言，每天服用5或10 g肌酸与其相应的安慰剂之间没有差异。两名接受肌酸补充治疗的女性患者，但未接受安慰剂治疗的女性患者，在接受肌酸治疗2周后，汉密尔顿抑郁评估量表降低了50％以上。没有临床相关副作用的报道。这项初步研究似乎表明，在服用SSRIs / SNRIs / NASA治疗3周的主要抑郁症妇女中没有显示出“现实生活中的反应”的情况下，使用肌酸增强疗法与安慰剂相比没有优势。但是，在这些女性患者的一小部分亚组中，这种肌酸的增加仍可能引起更快的反应。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:Population neuroscience is an emerging field that combines epidemiology and neuroscience to study how genes and the environment shape typical and atypical brain functioning. The objective of this study was to review key studies on population neuroscience from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and to identify potential gaps vis-à-vis studies conducted in high-income countries. METHODS:We conducted a systematic review to search for longitudinal cohort studies investigating the development of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents in LMICs. We performed an electronic search in the EMBASE and MEDLINE databases from inception to July 5th, 2019. RESULTS:We found six cohorts from four countries that met our search criteria: three cohorts from Brazil, one from China, one from South Africa, and one from Mauritius. Relevant examples of findings from these studies are reported. CONCLUSION:Our results demonstrate the impact of the valuable science output these cohort designs promote, allowing LMICs to have a share in frontline global psychiatry research. National and international funding agencies should invest in LMIC population neuroscience in order to promote replication and generalization of research from high-income countries.

背景与目标： 目的：人口神经科学是一个结合流行病学和神经科学来研究基因和环境如何塑造典型和非典型大脑功能的新兴领域。这项研究的目的是审查来自中低收入国家（LMIC）的人口神经科学的关键研究，并确定与高收入国家进行的研究相比的潜在差距。
方法：我们进行了系统的综述，以寻找纵向队列研究，以调查中低收入国家儿童和青少年精神疾病的发展。从成立到2019年7月5日，我们在EMBASE和MEDLINE数据库中进行了电子搜索。
结果：我们从四个符合我们搜索条件的国家/地区中找到了六组：来自巴西的三组，来自中国的一组，来自南非的一组和来自毛里求斯的一组。报告了这些研究结果的相关实例。
结论：我们的结果证明了这些队列设计所促进的有价值的科学成果的影响，使中低收入国家在全球精神病学研究的第一线中占有一席之地。国家和国际资助机构应投资于LMIC人口神经科学，以促进高收入国家研究的复制和推广。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The brain can be regarded as a network: a connected system where nodes, or units, represent different specialized regions and links, or connections, represent communication pathways. From a functional perspective, communication is coded by temporal dependence between the activities of different brain areas. In the last decade, the abstract representation of the brain as a graph has allowed to visualize functional brain networks and describe their non-trivial topological properties in a compact and objective way. Nowadays, the use of graph analysis in translational neuroscience has become essential to quantify brain dysfunctions in terms of aberrant reconfiguration of functional brain networks. Despite its evident impact, graph analysis of functional brain networks is not a simple toolbox that can be blindly applied to brain signals. On the one hand, it requires the know-how of all the methodological steps of the pipeline that manipulate the input brain signals and extract the functional network properties. On the other hand, knowledge of the neural phenomenon under study is required to perform physiologically relevant analysis. The aim of this review is to provide practical indications to make sense of brain network analysis and contrast counterproductive attitudes.

背景与目标： ：大脑可以看作是一个网络：一个连接的系统，其中的节点或单元代表不同的专用区域，而链接或连接则代表通信路径。从功能的角度来看，交流是通过不同大脑区域活动之间的时间依赖性来编码的。在过去的十年中，大脑作为图形的抽象表示已使可视化的功能性大脑网络可视化并以紧凑而客观的方式描述了它们的非平凡的拓扑特性。如今，在功能神经网络的异常重配置方面，图谱分析在转化神经科学中的使用对于量化脑功能障碍已变得至关重要。尽管有明显的影响，但功能大脑网络的图形分析并不是一个可以盲目地应用于大脑信号的简单工具箱。一方面，它需要管道的所有方法步骤的知识，这些方法可以操纵输入的大脑信号并提取功能性网络属性。另一方面，需要进行研究中的神经现象的知识以进行生理学相关的分析。这篇综述的目的是提供有用的适应症，以使人们对大脑网络进行分析并对比适得其反的态度。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Theoreticians have been enchanted by the secrets of the brain for many years: how and why does it work so well? There has been a long history of searching for its mechanisms. Theoretical or even mathematical scientists have proposed various models of neural networks which has led to the birth of a new field of research. We can think of the 'pre-historic' period of Rashevski and Wiener, and then the period of perceptrons which is the beginning of learning machines, neurodynamics approaches, and further connectionist approaches. Now is currently the period of computational neuroscience. I have been working in this field for nearly half a century, and have experienced its repeated rise and fall. Now having reached very old age, I would like to state my own endeavors on establishing mathematical neuroscience for half a century, from a personal, even biased, point of view. It would be my pleasure if my experiences could encourage young researchers to participate in mathematical neuroscience.

背景与目标： ：多年以来，理论家对大脑的秘密着迷：它如何以及为什么如此有效？寻找其机制已有很长的历史。理论或什至数学科学家提出了各种神经网络模型，从而催生了一个新的研究领域。我们可以想到Rashevski和Wiener的“史前”时期，然后是感知器的时期，这是学习机器，神经动力学方法和进一步的连接主义方法的开始。现在是计算神经科学的时期。我在这个领域已经工作了近半个世纪，经历了它反复的兴衰。现在我已经很老了，我想从个人甚至偏颇的观点出发，致力于建立半个世纪的数学神经科学。如果我的经验能够鼓励年轻的研究人员参与数学神经科学，那将是我的荣幸。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :State-of-the-art tissue-clearing methods provide subcellular-level optical access to intact tissues from individual organs and even to some entire mammals. When combined with light-sheet microscopy and automated approaches to image analysis, existing tissue-clearing methods can speed up and may reduce the cost of conventional histology by several orders of magnitude. In addition, tissue-clearing chemistry allows whole-organ antibody labelling, which can be applied even to thick human tissues. By combining the most powerful labelling, clearing, imaging and data-analysis tools, scientists are extracting structural and functional cellular and subcellular information on complex mammalian bodies and large human specimens at an accelerated pace. The rapid generation of terabyte-scale imaging data furthermore creates a high demand for efficient computational approaches that tackle challenges in large-scale data analysis and management. In this Review, we discuss how tissue-clearing methods could provide an unbiased, system-level view of mammalian bodies and human specimens and discuss future opportunities for the use of these methods in human neuroscience.

背景与目标： ：最先进的组织清除方法提供了从单个器官甚至完整的哺乳动物进入完整组织的亚细胞级光学通道。当与光片显微镜和自动图像分析方法结合使用时，现有的组织清除方法可以加快速度，并且可以将传统组织学的成本降低几个数量级。此外，组织清除化学技术可对全器官抗体进行标记，甚至可以应用于厚厚的人体组织。通过结合最强大的标记，清除，成像和数据分析工具，科学家们正在以更快的速度提取复杂哺乳动物身体和大型人类标本上的结构和功能性细胞及亚细胞信息。 TB级成像数据的快速生成还对有效的计算方法提出了很高的要求，以解决大规模数据分析和管理中的挑战。在这篇综述中，我们讨论了组织清除方法如何提供哺乳动物身体和人类标本的无偏见的系统级视图，并讨论了在人类神经科学中使用这些方法的未来机会。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Acute low back pain (LBP) from injuries is prevalent in the work place. It has been shown that patients with psychosocial factors often progress with persistent pain and lead to significant workers compensation costs. Therapeutic Neuroscience Education (TNE) has been shown to be beneficial in changing a patient's cognition regarding their pain state, which may result in decrease fear, anxiety and catastrophization. A 19-year-old female who developed LBP from a work injury was the patient for this case report. A physical examination, Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NRPS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Fear-Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire (FABQ), Keele STarT Back Screening Tool (Keele SBST) and Acute Low Back Pain Screening (ALBPS) Questionnaires were assessed during initial physical therapy visit and discharge. Treatment consisted of use of TNE, manual therapy and exercises. She attended five total visits over a 2-week period prior to full discharge. During the initial visit the patient reported NRPS = 3/10, ODI = 36%, FABQ-PA = 23, FABQ-W = 30, Keele SBST = 4/9, ALBPS = 101. At discharge the patient reported a 0 on all outcome questionnaires with ability to return to full work and no pain complaints.

背景与目标： ：在工作场所普遍存在因受伤而导致的急性下腰痛（LBP）。已经表明，具有社会心理因素的患者经常会持续出现疼痛，并导致大量的工人补偿费用。治疗神经科学教育（TNE）已被证明在改变患者对疼痛状态的认知方面是有益的，这可能会减少恐惧，焦虑和灾难性疾病。该病例报告的患者为一名19岁女性，该女性因工伤而发展为LBP。在检查期间评估了体格检查，数字疼痛评分量表（NRPS），Oswestry残疾指数（ODI），避免恐惧信念问卷（FABQ），Keele STarT背部筛查工具（Keele SBST）和急性下背部疼痛筛查（ALBPS）问卷。最初的物理治疗就诊和出院。治疗包括使用TNE，手动治疗和锻炼。在完全出院之前的2周内，她共进行了5次探视。初次就诊时，患者报告NRPS == 3/10，ODI == 36％，FABQ-PA == 23，FABQ-W == 30，Keele SBST == 4/9，ALBPS == 101。有能力恢复全职工作且无痛苦投诉的结局调查表。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Managing the critical neuroscience patient population challenges practitioners because of both the devastating injury involved and the complexity of care required. Emerging technology provides the neuroscience intensive care unit team with better information on the intricate physiology and dynamics inside the cranium. In particular, the team is better able to detect changes in pressure, oxygen, and blood flow. With improved data in hand, the team can intervene to optimize intracranial dynamics, possibly reducing disability and death among such patients.

背景与目标： ：由于涉及到毁灭性的伤害和所需的护理复杂性，管理关键的神经科学患者群体给从业者带来了挑战。新兴技术为神经科学重症监护病房团队提供了有关颅骨内部复杂生理学和动力学的更好信息。特别是，该团队能够更好地检测压力，氧气和血流的变化。掌握了改进的数据后，研究小组可以进行干预以优化颅内动力学，从而可能减少此类患者的残疾和死亡。