BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The goals of tobacco control endgame strategies are specified in terms of the desired levels of tobacco use and/or tobacco related health consequences. Yet the strategies being considered may have other consequences beyond tobacco use prevalence, forms and related harms. Most of the proposed strategies threaten to create large black markets with potential attendant harms: corruption, high illegal earnings, violence and/or organised crime. Western societies of course have considerable experience with these problems in the context of prohibition of drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, heroin and methamphetamine. These experiences suggest that low prevalence has been achieved only by tough enforcement with damaging unintended consequences. Tobacco prohibition (total or partial) may not present the same trade-off but there is little basis for making a projection of the scale, form and harms of the attendant black markets. Nonetheless, these harms should not be ignored in analyses of the endgame proposals.

背景与目标： ：控烟最终策略的目标是根据所需的烟草使用水平和/或与烟草相关的健康后果指定的。然而，正在考虑的策略可能会带来除烟草使用流行率，形式和相关危害以外的其他后果。大多数提议的战略都威胁要建立具有潜在危害的大型黑市：腐败，高额非法收入，暴力和/或有组织犯罪。西方社会当然在禁止诸如大麻，可卡因，海洛因和甲基苯丙胺之类的毒品的背景下对这些问题有丰富的经验。这些经验表明，只有通过强行执行并破坏意想不到的后果，才能实现较低的患病率。禁止烟草（全部或部分禁止烟草）可能不会带来相同的权衡，但没有依据来预测随之而来的黑市的规模，形式和危害。但是，在分析残局建议时，不应忽略这些危害。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :In May 2016, countries using oral polio vaccine for routine immunization switched from trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine (tOPV) to bivalent type 1 and 3 OPV (bOPV). This was done in order to reduce risks from type 2 vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPV2) and vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) and to introduce ≥1 dose of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) to mitigate post-switch loss of type 2 immunity. We conducted a literature review of studies that assessed humoral and intestinal immunogenicity induced by the newly recommended schedules. Differences in seroconversion rates were closely associated with both timing of first IPV administration and number of doses administered. All studies demonstrated high levels of immunity for types 1 and 3 regardless of immunization schedule. When administered late in the primary series, a second dose of IPV closed the humoral immunity gap against polio type 2 associated with a single dose. IPV doses and administration schedules appear to have limited impact on type 2 excretion following challenge.

背景与目标： ：2016年5月，使用口服脊髓灰质炎疫苗进行常规免疫的国家从三价口服脊髓灰质炎病毒疫苗（tOPV）改为二价1型和3型OPV（bOPV）。这样做是为了降低源自2型疫苗的脊髓灰质炎病毒（VDPV2）和与疫苗相关的麻痹性脊髓灰质炎（VAPP）的风险，并引入≥1剂量的灭活脊髓灰质炎疫苗（IPV）以减轻转换后2型免疫力丧失。我们对研究进行了文献综述，这些研究评估了新推荐的时间表诱发的体液和肠道免疫原性。血清转化率的差异与首次IPV给药的时间和给药剂量密切相关。所有研究均表明，无论接种时间表如何，对1型和3型免疫均具有高水平的免疫力。在主要系列药物的后期服用时，第二剂IPV可以消除与单剂相关的2型小儿麻痹症的体液免疫力差距。 IPV剂量和给药方案似乎对激发后2型排泄物的影响有限。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The World Health Organization declared India among other 10 countries in South East Region - as 'polio-free' in 2014. Since then, the Government of India (GoI) has scaled up its initiatives against polio endgame which targets virus eradication and sequential withdrawal of type 2 virus from oral polio vaccine (OPV). However, prior to choosing the switch from trivalent OPV (t-OPV) to bivalent OPV (b-OPV), it was suggested to include inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in the national immunization schedule to protect vaccine naïve population against type 2 poliovirus. The GoI declared introduction of single dose of intramuscular IPV at 14 weeks since October 2015. In addition, anticipating the scarcity of IPV at present in India, GoI also recommended two intradermal doses of IPV in few states since April 2016. This review discusses the programmatic implications of these strategies along with recommendations by the Advisory Committee on Vaccines and Immunization Practices of Indian Academy of Pediatrics (IAP-ACVIP) on polio endgame strategy.

背景与目标： ：世界卫生组织宣布印度在东南地区的其他10个国家中-2014年为“无政治国家”。此后，印度政府（GoI）扩大了针对消灭小儿麻痹症的计划，该计划的目标是消灭病毒并顺序撤药口服脊髓灰质炎疫苗（OPV）感染2型病毒。但是，在选择从三价OPV（t-OPV）转换为二价OPV（b-OPV）之前，建议在国家免疫计划中包括灭活的脊髓灰质炎病毒疫苗（IPV），以保护未接种过疫苗的人群免受2型脊髓灰质炎病毒的侵害。 GoI宣布自2015年10月起第14周开始单剂IPV肌内注射。此外，由于预计印度目前IPV稀缺，GoI还建议自2016年4月以来在少数几个州推荐两次皮内注射IPV。这些策略的含义，以及印度儿科学会疫苗和免疫实践咨询委员会（IAP-ACVIP）关于小儿麻痹症最终策略的建议。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Considerable work still needs to be done to understand more fully the basic processes going on inside the non-photosynthetic plastid organelle of Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria. Following an explosion of genomic and transcriptional information in recent years, research workers are still analysing these data looking for new material relevant to the plastid. Several metabolic and housekeeping functions based on bacterial biochemistry have been elucidated and this has given impetus to finding lead inhibitors based on established anti-microbials. Structural investigations of plastid-associated enzymes identified as potential targets have begun. This review gives a perspective on the research to date and hopes to emphasize that a practical outcome for the clinic should be an important focus of future efforts. Malaria parasites have become resistant to front-line anti-malarials that are widely used and were formerly dependable. This has become a worrying problem in many regions where malaria is endemic. The time lag between hunting for new inhibitors and their application as pharmaceuticals is so long and costly that a steady stream of new ventures has to be undertaken to give a reasonable chance of finding affordable and appropriate anti-malarials for the future. Attempts to find inhibitors of the plastid organelle of the malaria parasite should be intensified in such programmes.

背景与目标： ：仍需要做大量工作以更充分地了解疟疾的致病性疟原虫的非光合质体细胞器内部的基本过程。近年来，随着基因组和转录信息的爆炸式增长，研究人员仍在分析这些数据，以寻找与质体相关的新材料。阐明了基于细菌生物化学的几种代谢和内务处理功能，这推动了基于既定抗微生物剂的铅抑制剂的发现。被鉴定为潜在靶标的质体相关酶的结构研究已经开始。这篇综述为迄今为止的研究提供了一个观点，并希望强调临床的实际结果应该是未来工作的重要重点。疟原虫已经对一线抗疟疾产生了抵抗力，这些抗疟疾被广泛使用并且以前是可靠的。在疟疾流行的许多地区，这已成为令人担忧的问题。寻找新抑制剂与将其用作药物之间的时间间隔太长且成本高昂，因此必须进行源源不断的新投资，才能有合理的机会为将来找到负担得起且合适的抗疟药。在此类计划中应加强寻找疟原虫质体细胞器抑制剂的尝试。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Tobacco use causes a tremendous amount of morbidity and mortality globally, with a staggering level of financial costs. In many countries, public health interventions have been able to reduce the prevalence of smoking and the associated burden. However, despite these successes, there is still much work left to be done. This commentary argues that the tobacco control interventions recommended by the World Health Organization are necessary but not sufficient to adequately address the consequences of tobacco use.

背景与目标： ：使用烟草在全球范围内会导致大量的发病和死亡，其财务成本却达到惊人的水平。在许多国家，公共卫生干预措施已经能够减少吸烟率和相关负担。但是，尽管取得了这些成功，但仍有许多工作要做。该评论认为，世界卫生组织建议的控烟干预措施是必要的，但不足以充分解决吸烟的后果。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: TOPIC:The concepts and research that underpin our understanding of how the brain is the organ of the mind. PURPOSE:To describe the dynamic nature of nervous system functioning and development; to discuss how the nervous system changes anatomically throughout the lifespan; to examine the vital role and interaction of genetics and environment; and to discuss the relationship among the brain, neurotransmission, genes, and psychiatric illness. SOURCES:Published literature. CONCLUSIONS:The latest research from the neurosciences lays to rest any suggestion that psychiatric illnesses are psychologically induced.

背景与目标： 主题：概念和研究奠定了我们对大脑如何成为大脑器官的理解的基础。
目的：描述神经系统功能和发展的动态特性；讨论神经系统在整个生命周期中的解剖结构变化；研究遗传学与环境的重要作用及其相互作用；并讨论大脑，神经传递，基因和精神病之间的关系。
资料来源：已出版的文献。
结论：神经科学的最新研究搁置了关于精神疾病是由心理诱发的任何暗示。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Achieving the goal of a world free of poliomyelitis still requires significant effort. Although polio immunization represents a mature area, the polio endgame will require new tools and strategies, particularly as national and global health leaders coordinate the cessation of all three serotypes of oral poliovirus vaccine and increasingly adopt inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV). Poliovirus epidemiology and the global options for managing polioviruses continue to evolve, along with our understanding and appreciation of the resources needed and the risks that require management. Based on insights from modeling, we offer some perspective on the current status of plans and opportunities to achieve and maintain a world free of wild polioviruses and to successfully implement oral poliovirus vaccine cessation. IPV costs and potential wastage will represent an important consideration for national policy makers. Innovations may reduce future IPV costs, but the world urgently needs lower-cost IPV options.

背景与目标： ：要实现一个没有脊髓灰质炎的世界的目标，仍然需要付出巨大的努力。尽管小儿麻痹症免疫是一个成熟的领域，但消灭小儿麻痹症将需要新的工具和策略，尤其是随着国家和全球卫生领导人协调停止口服小儿麻痹症疫苗的所有三种血清型并越来越多地采用灭活的小儿麻痹症疫苗（IPV）。随着我们对所需资源和需要管理的风险的理解和理解，脊髓灰质炎病毒流行病学和管理脊髓灰质炎病毒的全球选择也在不断发展。基于建模的见解，我们对计划的现状以及实现和维持一个没有野生脊髓灰质炎病毒的世界以及成功实施口服脊髓灰质炎病毒疫苗戒烟的机会提供了一些看法。 IPV成本和潜在浪费将是国家决策者的重要考虑因素。创新可能会降低未来IPV的成本，但是世界迫切需要成本更低的IPV选项。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Paralytic poliomyelitis is a disease that became a public health issue at the beginning of the twentieth century and was more or less eliminated in developed countries by the early 1970s. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative of WHO has now eradicated endemic polio from all but three countries although re-introductions occur. The progress in polio eradication is striking and has accelerated over the last few years. It is likely that it will be finally eradicated from the world soon, the looming issue will then be how to stop vaccinating or modify immunization programs safely so that poliomyelitis does not re-emerge. This review article discusses the history and pathogenesis of poliomyelitis. The progress made, and challenges in sustaining the eradication of this debilitating infectious disease are considered.

背景与目标： ：麻痹性脊髓灰质炎是一种疾病，在20世纪初已成为公共卫生问题，并且在1970年代初期已在发达国家或多或少被消除。世卫组织全球根除脊髓灰质炎行动现已根除除三个国家外的所有国家根除脊髓灰质炎，尽管发生了重新介绍。在过去的几年中，根除脊髓灰质炎的工作取得了惊人的进展。可能很快将其从世界上彻底根除，那么迫在眉睫的问题将是如何安全地停止接种疫苗或修改免疫程序，以使脊髓灰质炎不会再次出现。这篇综述文章讨论了脊髓灰质炎的历史和发病机理。考虑了在消灭这种使人衰弱的传染病方面取得的进展和面临的挑战。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:The Global Polio Eradication Initiative plans for coordinated cessation of oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) use, beginning with serotype 2-containing OPV (i.e., OPV2 cessation) followed by the remaining two OPV serotypes (i.e., OPV13 cessation). The risk of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outbreaks after OPV cessation of any serotype depends on the serotype-specific population immunity to transmission prior to its cessation. METHODS:Based on an existing integrated global model of poliovirus risk management policies, we estimate the serotype-specific OPV doses required to manage population immunity for a strategy of intensive supplemental immunization activities (SIAs) shortly before OPV cessation of each serotype. The strategy seeks to prevent any cVDPV outbreaks after OPV cessation, although actual events remain stochastic. RESULTS:Managing the risks of OPV cessation of any serotype depends on achieving sufficient population immunity to transmission to transmission at OPV cessation. This will require that countries with sub-optimal routine immunization coverage and/or conditions that favor poliovirus transmission conduct SIAs with homotypic OPV shortly before its planned coordinated cessation. The model suggests the need to increase trivalent OPV use in SIAs by approximately 40 % or more during the year before OPV2 cessation and to continue bOPV SIAs between the time of OPV2 cessation and OPV13 cessation. CONCLUSIONS:Managing the risks of cVDPVs in the polio endgame will require serotype-specific OPV SIAs in some areas prior to OPV cessation and lead to demands for additional doses of the vaccine in the short term that will affect managers and manufacturers.

背景与目标： 背景：全球根除脊髓灰质炎行动计划计划协调使用口服脊髓灰质炎疫苗（OPV），从含2型血清型OPV（即OPV2停止）开始，然后是其余两种OPV血清型（即OPV13停止）。停止任何血清型的原发性脊髓灰质炎疫苗后爆发循环疫苗源性脊髓灰质炎病毒（cVDPV）的风险取决于特定血清型的人群在其停止传播之前对传播的免疫力。
方法：基于现有的脊髓灰质炎病毒风险管理政策的综合全球模型，我们估计在每种血清型OPV停止前不久进行密集补充免疫活动（SIA）的策略，以管理人群免疫所需的血清型特异性OPV剂量。该策略旨在防止OPV停止后发生任何cVDPV爆发，尽管实际事件仍然是随机的。
结果：管理任何血清型正痘病毒停止的风险取决于在正痘病毒停止时获得足够的人群免疫力。这将要求常规免疫接种次优的国家和/或有利于脊髓灰质炎病毒传播的条件的国家在计划协调停止前不久就进行同型OPV的SIA。该模型表明，在OPV2停止之前的一年中，有必要将SIA中的三价OPV使用量增加约40％或更多，并在OPV2停止和OPV13停止之间继续使用bOPV SIA。
结论：管理脊髓灰质炎终末期cVDPVs的风险将需要在停止OPV之前在某些地区进行针对血清型的OPV SIA，并导致短期内需要额外剂量的疫苗，这将影响管理者和制造商。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A billion deaths from tobacco are expected by 2100. Many policy interventions such as increased taxation, restrictions on advertisement, smoking bans, as well as behavioral interventions, such as pharmacological and psychological treatments for smoking cessation, decrease tobacco use, but they reach their limits. Endgame scenarios focusing on tobacco supply rather than demand are increasingly discussed, but meet with resistance by the industry and even by many tobacco control experts. A main stumbling block that requires more attention is what to do with the tobacco industry in endgame scenarios. This industry has employed notoriously talented experts in law, business, organization, marketing, advertising, strategy, policy, and statistics and has tremendous lobbying power. Performance-based regulatory approaches can pose a legal obligation on manufacturers to decrease - and eventually - eliminate tobacco products according to specified schedules. Penalties and rewards can make such plans both beneficial for public health and attractive to the companies that do the job well. We discuss caveats and reality checks of engaging the tobacco industry to eliminate its current market and change focus. Brainstorming is warranted to entice the industry to abandon tobacco for other profit goals. To get the dialogue started, we propose the wild possibility of hiring former tobacco companies to reduce the costs of healthcare, thereby addressing concurrently two major challenges to public health.

背景与目标： ：到2100年，预计将有10亿人死于烟草。许多政策干预措施，例如增加税收，限制广告，禁止吸烟，以及行为干预措施，例如戒烟的药物和心理治疗，都减少了烟草使用，但这些措施可以达到目的。限制。越来越多地讨论了以烟草供应而不是需求为重点的残局情景，但最终结果受到了业界甚至许多烟草控制专家的抵制。需要更多关注的主要绊脚石是在终端游戏场景中如何处理烟草业。这个行业雇用了法律，商业，组织，市场营销，广告，战略，政策和统计方面的著名专家，并具有巨大的游说能力。基于绩效的监管方法可能对制造商构成法律义务，要求其按照指定的时间表减少并最终淘汰烟草产品。罚款和奖励可以使这样的计划既有益于公共卫生又可以吸引做得好的公司。我们讨论了吸引烟草业以消除其当前市场并改变重点的注意事项和现实检查。头脑风暴是诱使该行业放弃烟草以实现其他利润目标的诱因。为了开始对话，我们建议雇用前烟草公司以降低医疗保健成本的巨大可能性，从而同时解决公共卫生方面的两个主要挑战。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The advent of new tobacco products such as electronic cigarettes and the dramatic rise in their use, especially by adolescents and young adults, are significant public health concerns. Electronic cigarettes have become the most popular tobacco products for youth and adolescents in the United States and are attracting youth to new avenues for nicotine addiction. Although these products may have benefit by helping some smokers quit or to move to a less harmful product, the long-term health effects of these products and the net public health effect associated with their use remain unclear and widely debated. There is increasing concern that the use of newer tobacco products may catalyze transition to the use of other tobacco products or recreational drugs, particularly in young adults. Therefore, there is urgent need for robust US Food and Drug Administration regulation of all tobacco products to avoid the significant economic and population health consequences of continued tobacco use. Although the American Heart Association acknowledges that the ultimate endgame would be an end to all tobacco and nicotine addiction in the United States, it supports first minimizing the use of all combustible tobacco products while ensuring that other products do not addict the next generation of youth and adolescents. The endgame strategy needs to be coordinated with the long-standing, evidence-based tobacco control strategies that have significantly reduced tobacco use and initiation in the United States.

背景与目标： ：电子烟等新烟草产品的问世以及其使用的急剧增加，尤其是青少年和年轻人的使用，是引起公众健康的重大问题。电子烟已成为美国青少年和青少年中最受欢迎的烟草产品，并且正在吸引年轻人进入尼古丁成瘾的新途径。尽管这些产品可以通过帮助某些吸烟者戒烟或转而使用危害较小的产品而受益，但这些产品的长期健康影响以及与使用这些产品有关的净公共健康影响仍然不清楚，并且引起了广泛的争论。人们越来越关注使用较新的烟草产品可能会促使向使用其他烟草产品或休闲药物的使用过渡，特别是在年轻人中。因此，迫切需要美国食品药品管理局对所有烟草制品进行有力的监管，以避免持续使用烟草对经济和人口健康产生重大影响。尽管美国心脏协会承认最终的最终结果将是结束美国所有烟草和尼古丁成瘾，但它支持首先最大程度地减少所有可燃烟草产品的使用，同时确保其他产品不会使下一代年轻人和青少年上瘾。青少年。残局策略需要与长期的循证烟草控制策略相协调，该策略已大大减少了美国的烟草使用和启动。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is an important public health problem endemic in 73 countries, where it is a major cause of acute and chronic morbidity and a significant impediment to socioeconomic development. It is targeted for elimination by 2020, through preventive chemotherapy using albendazole in combination with either ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine citrate. Preventive chemotherapy enables the regular and coordinated administration of safe, single-dose medications delivered through mass drug administration (MDA). Many countries are now scaling down MDA activities after achieving 100% geographic coverage and instituting monitoring and evaluation procedures to establish the impact of several consecutive rounds of MDA and determine if transmission has been interrupted. At the same time, countries yet to initiate MDA for elimination of LF will adopt improved mapping and coverage assessment protocols to accelerate the efforts for achieving global elimination by 2020. This review provides an update on treatment for LF and describes the current global status of the elimination efforts, transmission control processes and strategies for measuring impact and continuing surveillance after MDA has ceased.

背景与目标： 淋巴丝虫病（LF）是73个国家/地区的重要公共卫生问题，是急性和慢性发病的主要原因，也是社会经济发展的重大障碍。通过使用阿苯达唑与伊维菌素或柠檬酸二乙基卡巴嗪合用的预防性化学疗法，到2020年消除该病的目标。预防性化学疗法可以通过药物大规模管理（MDA）定期和协调地管理安全的单剂量药物。在实现100％的地理覆盖率并建立监视和评估程序以确定连续几轮MDA的影响并确定传输是否被中断之后，许多国家现在正在缩减MDA活动。同时，尚未启动消除LF的MDA的国家将采用改进的制图和覆盖率评估协议，以加速为在2020年之前实现全球消除而努力。这项审查提供了有关LF治疗的最新信息，并描述了LF的当前全球状况。在MDA停止后，采取消除措施，传输控制程序以及衡量影响和持续监视的策略。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To investigate the potential impacts of several tobacco control interventions on adult daily smoking prevalence in the Australian state of Queensland, using a system dynamics model codeveloped with local and national stakeholders.

METHODS:Eight intervention scenarios were simulated and compared with a reference scenario (business as usual), in which all tobacco control measures currently in place are maintained unchanged until the end of the simulation period (31 December 2037).

FINDINGS:Under the business as usual scenario, adult daily smoking prevalence is projected to decline from 11.8% in 2017 to 5.58% in 2037. A sustained 50% increase in antismoking advertising exposure from 2018 reduces projected prevalence in 2037 by 0.80 percentage points. Similar reductions are projected with the introduction of tobacco wholesaler and retailer licensing schemes that either permit or prohibit tobacco sales by alcohol-licensed venues (0.65 and 1.73 percentage points, respectively). Increasing the minimum age of legal supply of tobacco products substantially reduces adolescent initiation, but has minimal impact on smoking prevalence in the adult population over the simulation period. Sustained reductions in antismoking advertising exposure of 50% and 100% from 2018 increase projected adult daily smoking prevalence in 2037 by 0.88 and 1.98 percentage points, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS:These results suggest that any prudent approach to endgame planning should seek to build on rather than replace existing tobacco control measures that have proved effective to date. Additional interventions that can promote cessation are expected to be more successful in reducing smoking prevalence than interventions focussing exclusively on preventing initiation.

背景与目标： 目标：使用与地方和国家利益相关者共同开发的系统动力学模型，调查几种烟草控制干预措施对澳大利亚昆士兰州成年人每日吸烟流行的潜在影响。

< strong>方法：对八个干预方案进行了模拟，并与参考方案（照常营业）进行了比较，在参考方案中，当前所有的烟草控制措施都保持不变，直到模拟期结束（2037年12月31日）。

发现：在一切照旧的情况下，成年人的每日吸烟率预计将从2017年的11.8％下降到2037年的5.58％。反吸烟广告的曝光率将持续增长50％从2018年开始，预计2037年的患病率将降低0.80个百分点。预计将通过引入烟草批发商和零售商许可计划来实现类似的减少，该计划允许或禁止在酒精许可的场所销售烟草（分别为0.65和1.73个百分点）。增加合法的烟草制品最低供应年龄可以大大减少青春期的萌生，但是在模拟期间对成年人口吸烟率的影响却很小。从2018年开始，持续减少50％和100％的反吸烟广告曝光量，预计2037年成人每日吸烟率分别增加0.88和1.98个百分点。

结论：这些结果表明，采取任何谨慎的残局计划方法，都应力求建立而不是取代迄今已证明有效的现有烟草控制措施。与专门专注于预防吸烟的干预措施相比，其他可以促进戒烟的干预措施在减少吸烟流行方面有望取得更大的成功。