BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVES:To present the history of social marketing of modern contraceptives in Albania. METHODS:We review documentation and activity of NESMARK, an Albanian non-governmental social marketing organisation, and national data on adoption of modern contraception. RESULTS:During 15 years of awareness raising, sales of affordable products, and provider training, NESMARK has impacted the introduction and adoption of modern contraception in Albania. NESMARK is the country's main distributor of emergency contraception (EC) and complements the public sector in the distribution of condoms and oral contraceptives. NESMARK has made major efforts to overcome prevalent taboos and misinformation held by medical and nursing personnel, pharmacists and the general public, regarding the effectiveness and safety of condoms, oral contraceptives, and EC. CONCLUSIONS:NESMARK has contributed to increasing the choices for modern contraception methods in Albania by providing affordable contraceptives, training providers, and educating the general population. However, widespread use of withdrawal coupled with the belief that it is as or more effective than modern contraception, continues to limit uptake of new methods and is a significant challenge to comprehensive and sustained social marketing programmes.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :It is well known that blood pressure (BP) management reduces the incidence of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events. However, it is unclear how many of these events occur in hypertensive patients who receive pharmacological treatment. The aim of this survey was to evaluate the occurrence rate of both types of events in patients receiving valsartan-based treatment. Of 30 366 patients treated with valsartan, 28 356 patients were observed for 2.93 years. Antihypertensive drugs other than valsartan were used in 56.8% of patients. After the administration of valsartan, the systolic and diastolic BP significantly decreased from 161.1±19.1/90.4±13.1 to 139.9±18.1/79.6±11.9 mm Hg. Cerebrovascular events were observed in 550 patients (1.94%, 9.29/1000 patient-years), and cardiac events were observed in 576 patients (2.03%, 9.73/1000 patient-years). A comparative analysis of the hazard ratios for cerebrovascular and cardiac events according to the BP level at the endpoint showed a BP-dependent reduction of risk for cerebrovascular events, and the change in risk exhibited a J-curve phenomenon in the relationship between cardiac events and systolic BP. The J-curve phenomenon was not observed in patients aged <75 years, but it was observed for the systolic BP in patients aged 75 years. Adverse drug reactions were observed in 1925 of 28 420 patients (6.77%). This post-marketing surveillance data for valsartan showed the outcomes for treated hypertensive patients in a large population in Japan who were followed for up to 3 years. These data will add important knowledge regarding the treatment of hypertension in Japan.

背景与目标： : 众所周知，血压 (BP) 管理可降低脑血管和心血管事件的发生率。然而，目前尚不清楚这些事件中有多少发生在接受药物治疗的高血压患者中。这项调查的目的是评估接受缬沙坦治疗的患者两种类型的事件的发生率。在接受缬沙坦治疗的30例   366患者中，观察了28例   356患者2.93年。56.8% 患者使用缬沙坦以外的抗高血压药物。服用缬沙坦后，收缩压和舒张压从161.1 ± 19.1/90.4 ± 13.1降至139.9 ± 18.1/79.6 ± 11.9  mm Hg。在550例患者中观察到脑血管事件 (1.94%，9.29/1000患者年)，在576例患者中观察到心脏事件 (2.03%，9.73/1000患者年)。根据终点的BP水平对脑血管事件和心脏事件的风险比进行比较分析，结果表明脑血管事件的风险降低了BP依赖性，并且风险的变化在心脏事件与收缩压之间的关系中表现出J曲线现象。在 <75岁的患者中未观察到J曲线现象，但在75岁的患者中观察到收缩压。观察28例420例 (6.77% 例) 药物不良反应1925年。缬沙坦的上市后监测数据显示了日本大量人群中接受治疗的高血压患者的结局，这些患者的随访时间长达3年。这些数据将增加有关日本高血压治疗的重要知识。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :On January 1, 2012, the law of 12 May 2011 on the reimbursement of medicines, food products of special nutritional purpose and medicinal products, intended to tighten up the reimbursement system, came into force in Poland. The new legislative act has significantly altered the previous principles of retail marketing of products subject to publicly financed reimbursement. First of all, the prices of reimbursed products have been unified through the introduction of fixed margins and prices and a ban--completely unknown until now--on using free market sales practices. These regulations are intended to lead to the abolition of price competition and its replacement with competition as to the quality of services provided by pharmacies. At the same time, entities engaged in retail marketing of medicinal products have been imposed a number of new obligations and highly repressive penalties for failure to fulfill them. The paper analyzes the legislative changes and points out the consequences, both those which can already be seen and the predictable ones. The assumed priority and criterion of evaluation of the reimbursement policy in question is its impact on the functioning of pharmacies which, according to the premises of Polish pharmaceutical law, should play the role of public health protection institutions.

背景与目标： : 2012年1月1日，旨在加强2011年5月12日报销制度的《药品，特殊营养食品和药品报销法》在波兰生效。新的立法法案大大改变了以前接受公共融资报销的产品的零售营销原则。首先，通过引入固定利润和价格以及禁止使用自由市场销售做法的禁令 (迄今为止完全未知)，已报销产品的价格已经统一。这些法规旨在废除价格竞争，并以药房提供的服务质量竞争代替竞争。同时，从事药品零售营销的实体受到了许多新的义务，并因未能履行这些义务而受到高度压制性的处罚。本文分析了立法变化，指出了已经可以看到的后果和可以预见的后果。所假定的有关报销政策的优先事项和评估标准是其对药房运作的影响，根据波兰制药法的前提，药房应发挥公共卫生保护机构的作用。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The majority of the world's 1.3 billion tobacco users are men, but female use is increasing. To examine differences in tobacco use and awareness of tobacco marketing by sex, CDC and health officials in Bangladesh, Thailand, and Uruguay (among the first countries to report results) analyzed 2009 data from a newly instituted survey, the Global Adult Tobacco Survey (GATS). This report summarizes the results of that analysis, which indicated wide variation among the three countries in tobacco use, product types used, and marketing awareness among males and females. In Bangladesh and Thailand, use of smoked tobacco products was far greater among males (44.7% and 45.6%, respectively) than females (1.5% and 3.1%, respectively). In Uruguay, the difference was smaller (30.7% versus 19.8%). Use of smokeless tobacco products in Bangladesh was approximately the same among males (26.4%) and females (27.9%), but females were significantly more likely to use smokeless tobacco in Thailand (6.3% versus 1.3%), and use in Uruguay by either sex was nearly nonexistent. Males in Bangladesh were twice as likely as females to notice cigarette advertising (68.0% versus 29.3%), but the difference between males and females was smaller in Thailand (17.4% versus 14.5%) and Uruguay (49.0% versus 40.0%). In all three countries, awareness of tobacco marketing was more prevalent among females aged 15--24 years than older women. Comprehensive bans on advertising, sponsorship, and promotion of tobacco products, recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), can reduce per capita cigarette consumption if enforced.

背景与目标： : 世界上13亿的烟草使用者大多数是男性，但女性的使用正在增加。为了检查按性别划分的烟草使用和烟草营销意识的差异，孟加拉国，泰国和乌拉圭的疾病预防控制中心和卫生官员 (在第一批报告结果的国家中) 分析了一项新调查的2009数据，即全球成人烟草调查 (GATS)。该报告总结了该分析的结果，表明这三个国家在烟草使用，使用的产品类型以及男性和女性的营销意识方面存在很大差异。在孟加拉国和泰国，男性 (分别为44.7% 和45.6%) 的烟熏烟草产品的使用量远远高于女性 (分别为1.5% 和3.1%)。在乌拉圭，差异较小 (30.7% 与19.8%)。在孟加拉国，男性 (26.4%) 和女性 (27.9%) 对无烟烟草产品的使用大致相同，但在泰国 (6.3% 与1.3%)，女性使用无烟烟草的可能性明显更高，在乌拉圭，无论男女都几乎不存在。孟加拉国的男性注意到香烟广告的可能性是女性的两倍 (68.0% 对29.3%)，但泰国 (17.4% 对14.5%) 和乌拉圭 (49.0% 对40.0%) 的男性和女性之间的差异较小。在这三个国家，15-24岁的女性对烟草营销的认识比老年女性更普遍。世卫组织建议全面禁止广告，赞助和促销烟草产品，如果得到执行，可以减少人均卷烟消费量。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:The present study sought to identify both the ingredients for success and the potential impediments to social marketing effectiveness for healthy eating behaviour, focusing on studies conducted over the last 10 years. DESIGN:A comprehensive literature review was undertaken examining seventeen databases to identify studies reporting the use of social marketing to address healthy eating. Thirty-four empirical studies were analysed to examine the effectiveness of social marketing interventions to improve healthy eating behaviour using Andreasen's (2002) social marketing benchmark criteria. Statistical analysis was undertaken to quantitatively evaluate whether effectiveness varied between study categories (subsets). SETTING:Healthy eating empirical studies published from 2000 onwards. SUBJECTS:Empirical studies that self-identified as social marketing. RESULTS:Sixteen social marketing studies (subset 1) were identified in the review. These were systematic studies which sought to change behaviour through tailored solutions (e.g. use of marketing tools beyond communication was clearly evident) that delivered value to the target audience. For these sixteen studies, the mean number of criteria identified was five. Six studies met all six criteria. Positive change to healthy eating behaviour was found in fourteen of sixteen studies. The sixteen studies that met the definition of social marketing used significantly more of Andreasen's (2002) criteria and were more effective in achieving behavioural change than the eighteen studies in subset 2. CONCLUSIONS:Social marketing is an involved process and it is important that studies identifying as social marketing adopt social marketing benchmark criteria. Social marketing when employed to its full extent offers the potential to change healthy eating.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The levels of mycotoxins found were generally lower the more refined the maize products were. The highest levels of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and fumonisins were found in maize bran and maize screenings. Ochratoxin A was found in a defatted germ meal sample at 50 μg/kg. Zearalenone was found randomly in samples at low levels (50 - 100 μg/kg). All other mycotoxins tested for, except in maize bran and maize screenings, were absent above the detection limits.

背景与目标： : 发现的霉菌毒素水平通常越低，玉米产品越精制。在玉米麸皮和玉米筛选中发现脱氧雪腐镰刀菌烯醇，雪腐镰刀菌烯醇和伏马菌素含量最高。在脱脂的胚芽粉样品中发现了曲霉毒素A，含量为50 μ g/kg。在样品中以低水平 (50-100 μ g/kg) 随机发现玉米赤菌烯酮。除玉米麸皮和玉米筛选外，所有其他测试的真菌毒素均高于检测限。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Although voluntary enrollment by abusive men in domestic violence perpetrator treatment programs occurs, most men enter treatment only after they have injured a partner or family member and have been arrested, convicted and sentenced. This leaves a serious gap for those who engage in abusive behavior but who have not been served by the legal or social service systems. To address this gap, the researchers applied social marketing principles to recruit abusive men to a telephone-delivered pre-treatment intervention (the Men's Domestic Abuse Check-Up-MDACU), designed to motivate non-adjudicated and untreated abusive men who are concurrently using alcohol and drugs to enter treatment voluntarily. This article discusses recruitment efforts in reaching perpetrators of intimate partner violence, an underserved population. Informed by McGuire's communication and persuasion matrix, the researchers describe three phases of the MDACU's marketing campaign: (1) planning, (2) early implementation, and (3) revision of marketing strategies based on initial results. The researchers' "lessons learned" conclude the paper.

背景与目标： : 尽管虐待男子自愿参加家庭暴力犯罪者治疗方案，但大多数男子只有在伤害伴侣或家庭成员并被逮捕，定罪和判刑后才接受治疗。这给那些从事虐待行为但没有得到法律或社会服务系统服务的人留下了严重的差距。为了解决这一差距，研究人员应用了社会营销原则，将虐待男性招募到电话提供的治疗前干预措施 (男性的家庭虐待检查-MDACU)，旨在激励未经裁决和未经治疗的虐待男性同时使用酒精和药物自愿接受治疗。本文讨论了招募工作，以帮助亲密伴侣暴力 (服务不足的人群) 的肇事者。根据McGuire的沟通和说服矩阵，研究人员描述了MDACU营销活动的三个阶段 :( 1) 计划，(2) 早期实施，以及 (3) 根据初步结果修订营销策略。研究人员的 “经验教训” 总结了这篇论文。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The National Association of EMS Physicians (NAEMSP), the American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP), the Air Medical Physician Association (AMPA), the Association of Air Medical Services (AAMS), and the National Association of State EMS Officials (NASEMSO) believe that patient care and outcomes are optimized by using air medical transport services that are licensed air ambulance providers with robust physician medical director oversight and ongoing quality assessment and review. Only air ambulance medical transport services with these credentials should advertise/market themselves as air ambulance services.

背景与目标： : 全国EMS医师协会 (NAEMSP)，美国急诊医师协会 (ACEP)，航空医师协会 (AMPA)，航空医疗服务协会 (AAMS)，国家EMS官员协会 (NASEMSO) 认为，通过使用航空医疗运输服务来优化患者的护理和结果，这些服务是有执照的航空救护车提供者，并具有强大的医师医疗总监监督和持续的质量评估和审查。只有具有这些证书的空中救护车医疗运输服务才能将自己宣传/推销为空中救护车服务。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: AIMS:A sustained-release formulation (SRF) of tapentadol has been marketed in Australia since February 2013. This study examined tapentadol SRF extra-medical use, attractiveness for extra-medical use, and associated harms in Australia. METHODS:This post-marketing study comprises analyses of Australian community sales data (2011-2017) for eleven pharmaceutical opioids (prescription and over-the-counter codeine disaggregated); calls to three poisons information centres (covering five of the eight jurisdictions in Australia) related to pharmaceutical opioids and coded by the centres as 'misuse' or 'abuse' (2011-2017); and interviews with people who inject drugs (n = 888) recruited as part of the Illicit Drug Reporting System (IDRS) from all Australian capital cities (2017). RESULTS:Population-level availability of tapentadol SRF increased from market launch, comprising the sixth largest market share of all opioid unit sales, and third greatest share in oral morphine equivalent milligrams sold, in December 2017. Lifetime tapentadol SRF use among the IDRS sample (n = 888) was low (1.5%; 95%CI 0.9-2.5), with few reporting past-6 month non-prescribed use or injection. Non-fatal overdose following tapentadol use was self-reported by less than 1% (95%CI 0.1-0.8). Between 2013-2017, 1.1% (n = 25) of pharmaceutical opioid 'misuse/abuse' calls were related to tapentadol, and predominantly the SRF. CONCLUSIONS:Increasing utilisation of tapentadol sustained-release formulation was observed, along with indications of extra-medical use and harms associated with use, although on a smaller scale relative to other opioids. These findings need to be interpreted in the context of the low level of exposure to tapentadol sustained-release formulation among the sentinel population of people who inject drugs.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To evaluate information contained within Internet sites that advertise and market dietary supplements containing ephedra. MATERIAL AND METHODS:We conducted an Internet search to identify Web sites advertising weight-loss supplements that contained ephedra. Between July 7 and July 18, 2002, 4 search engines were used by entering the term herbal weight loss. Outcome measures included disclosure of potential adverse effects of or contraindications to ephedra-containing supplements, disclosure of ephedra alkaloid dosage, and presence of misleading or incorrect information. RESULTS:Thirty-two products and advertisements were identified and systematically evaluated for deviance from truth-in-advertising standards. Of the 32 Web sites analyzed, 13 (41%) failed to disclose potential adverse effects or contraindications to supplement use. Seventeen (53%) did not reveal the dosage of ephedra alkaloids that was recommended. More importantly, 11 sites (34%) contained incorrect or misleading statements, some of which could directly result in serious harm to consumers. CONCLUSION:If dietary supplements containing ephedra are to continue to be marketed freely, substantial reform in advertising regulation and enforcement is warranted.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The pharmaceutical industry has an obligation to identify adverse reactions to drug products during all phases of drug development, including the post-marketing period. Estimates of population exposure to pharmaceutical products are important to the post-marketing surveillance of drugs, and provide a context for assessing the various risks and benefits, including drug safety, associated with drug treatment. This paper describes a systematic approach to estimating post-marketing drug exposure using ex-factory shipment data to estimate the quantity of medication available, and dosage information (stratified by indication or other factors as appropriate) to convert the quantity of medication to person time of exposure. Unlike the non-standardized methods often used to estimate exposure, this approach provides estimates whose calculations are explicit, documented, and consistent across products and over time. The methods can readily be carried out by an individual or small group specializing in this function, and lend themselves to automation. The present estimation approach is practical and relatively uncomplicated to implement. We believe it is a useful innovation.

背景与目标： : 制药行业有义务在药物开发的所有阶段，包括上市后阶段，确定对药物产品的不良反应。估计人群对药品的暴露量对于药物上市后的监测很重要，并为评估与药物治疗相关的各种风险和收益 (包括药物安全性) 提供了背景。本文介绍了一种系统的方法来估计上市后的药物暴露，使用出厂装运数据来估计可用的药物数量，并使用剂量信息 (根据适应症或其他适当因素进行分层) 将药物数量转换为人的暴露时间。与通常用于估计暴露量的非标准化方法不同，这种方法提供的估算值是明确的，有文档记录的，并且在产品之间以及随着时间的推移是一致的。这些方法可以由专门从事此功能的个人或小组轻松执行，并有助于自动化。当前的估算方法是实用的，并且实施起来相对简单。我们认为这是一项有益的创新。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the quality of information presented and claims made on websites offering bioidentical hormone therapy (BHT) products or services. METHODS:A quantitative content analysis was completed on 100 websites promoting or offering BHT products or services. Websites were identified through Google search engine from September to October 2013. Search terms included "bioidentical hormone therapy" or "bioidentical progesterone," accompanied by "purchase or buy," "service," or "doctors." The Brief DISCERN instrument was used to determine the quality of the health information. RESULTS:Websites were from Canada (59%), United States (38%), and other countries (3%). Almost half of the websites originated from medical clinics (47%), and healthcare professionals offering BHT services included physicians (50%), pharmacists (19%), and naturopaths (16%). Majority of websites promoted BHT as custom-compounded formulations (62%), with only 27% indicating that BHT is also commercially available. Websites overall claimed that BHT had less risk compared with conventional hormone therapy (62%). BHT was described as having less breast cancer risk (40%), whereas over a quarter of websites described BHT as "protective" for breast cancer. Websites mainly targeted women (99%), with males mentioned in 62% of websites. Product descriptors used to promote BHT included individualization (77%), natural (70%), hormone imbalance (56%), and antiaging (50%). The mean Brief DISCERN score was 15, indicating lower quality of information. CONCLUSIONS:Claims made about BHT on the internet are misleading and not consistent with current professional organizations' recommendations. Understanding how BHT may be promoted on the internet can help healthcare professionals when educating patients.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To identify the potential risk factors associated with Shenqifuzheng injection (SFI), a solution made of Dangshen (Radix Codonopsis) and Huangqi (Radix Astragali Mongolici), for the timely provision of information to regulatory authorities. METHODS:A comprehensive analysis of the production process, quality standards, pharmacology, post-marketing clinical studies, and safety evaluation using the primary literature of adverse reactions (ADR), case analyses, and systematic reviews, intensive hospital safety monitoring of post-marketing drugs, and data provided by the hospital information system (HIS). RESULTS:Sub-acute toxicity tests suggesting that a dose of 15 mL/kg (concentrated solution) had specific biological effects, whereas a smaller dose engendered no observable effects. Long-term toxicity testing in domestic rabbits showed that after SFI was administered for 90 days, the animals in each dosing group showed no chronic toxic reactions. Among 20 100 cases observed, the incidence of an ADR was 1.85 per thousand. From March to November 2013, of the leading institutions and 22 sub-centers involved in the post-marketing clinical safety intensive hospital monitoring, 21 units completed 8484 cases of monitoring, and reported 23 cases of adverse reactions. No damage to renal function was found using SFI at a dosage and a treatment course larger and longer than that recommended for the adjuvant treatment of tumors. This could reduce the mortality rate of admitted patients based on the analysis of the data provided by the HIS. A total of 16 clinical case reports of adverse reactions related to SFI in 1999-2012 were obtained through literature retrieval. These reports contained information concerning 17 cases, with adverse reaction symptoms including thrombocytopenia, rash, chills, feeling cold, palpitation, dyspnea, edema of a lower extremity, palpebral edema, and superficial vein inflammation, among others. CONCLUSION:This study introduces "get full access" to the flow of information on medicines regarding their ADR incidence rate and characteristics and factors. It supports the safety of SFI for clinical, research,and production uses based on objective, reliable, and scientific information to provide safe medication.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The Internet has allowed the expansion of food and beverage advertising in different media. The objective of this study was to identify the marketing strategies used in brand websites of foods and beverages consumed by children and adolescents, and classify them based on the Food Guidelines for the Argentinean Population. The foods and beverages most commonly consumed by the child and adolescent population as per the Survey on Nutritional Food Intake of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires were selected. Brand websites were identified; marketing strategies were analyzed and marketed foods and beverages were classified based on the Guidelines. A total of 80 websites were found; the most common strategies were brand identity, benefits and claims, and links to websites and/or social media. Also, 30 % of sites were aimed at children and adolescents, and 75 % of marketed foods and beverages corresponded to the group of sweets and fats, including those of low nutritional value. :Internet permitió expandir la promoción de alimentos/bebidas a diferentes medios. El objetivo del estudio fue identificar las estrategias de marketing en sitios web de marcas de alimentos y bebidas consumidos por niños/as y adolescentes, y clasificarlos según las recomendaciones de las Guías Alimentarias para la Población Argentina. Se seleccionaron los alimentos/bebidas más consumidos por la población infantojuvenil según la Encuesta Alimentaria Nutricional de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Se identificaron las páginas web de las marcas; se analizaron las estrategias de marketing y se clasificaron los alimentos/bebidas promocionados según las Guías. Se encontraron 80 páginas web, donde las estrategias más frecuentes fueron identificación de la marca, beneficios y declaraciones, y vínculos a páginas web y/o redes sociales. El 30 % de los sitios estaban dirigidos a niños/as/adolescentes, donde el 75 % de los alimentos/bebidas promocionados correspondieron al grupo de dulces y grasas, que incluye aquellos de bajo valor nutricional.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:Adapalene is a novel retinoid indicated for the topical treatment of acne vulgaris. The drug was introduced in India in 2001. AIMS:A post-marketing surveillance study was conducted to assess the safety and efficacy of adapalene gel 0.1% when used as monotherapy or in combination with other anti-acne agents in Indian patients of acne vulgaris. MATERIAL AND METHODS:A 12-week, multicentre, open-label, non-comparative study involving 571 patients from 21 centers across India was conducted between January and September of 2002. Concomitant prescription of other anti-acne drugs was permitted, if needed. RESULTS:Of the 571 patients, 441 completed the treatment as per protocol. At the end of therapy, 96.3% of patients showed an improvement in their acne from baseline, with greater than 75% improvement seen in two-thirds of patients. Adverse events were reported in 24% of the patients, none of which were serious. The tolerability of therapy was rated as excellent/good in 81% of patients by physicians and in 78% by the patients. CONCLUSION:Adapalene gel 0.1% is a safe and effective topical agent in the treatment of mild to moderate acne vulgaris in Indian patients. It may be safely combined with other topical and oral anti-acne agents.

背景与目标：