BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Legislative measures against smoking in Singapore began in the early 1970s, and can be said to have been the start of a comprehensive smoking control programme. With the launch of the National Smoking Control Programme (NSCP) in 1986, a National Smoking Control Coordinating Committee was set up to look into legislation and fiscal measures. To further increase the dimension and impact of the programme, a Civic Committee on Smoking Control was formed in 1996. This committee also looks into and recommends legislative measures. The NSCP is an ongoing programme that aims to reduce smoking rates through a combination of strategies, including education, establishment of no-smoking areas and increasing taxation and legislative measures. Existing legislation is regularly and systematically reviewed and revised, and new laws are recommended to strengthen our smoking control efforts. Concurrently, penalties and ways to improve enforcement of the legislation are also updated. The legislative measures that have been implemented in Singapore over the years include prohibition of tobacco advertising and promotion, restrictions on the sale of tobacco products, licensing of sales outlets, use of health warnings on cigarette packets, controlling and labelling of tar and nicotine contents, restriction of smoking in public places and prohibition of smoking in public by the under-eighteens. Several factors have helped make legislative measures work in Singapore. These include political will and support, starting legislation early, comprehensive legislative measures, enforcement measures and continuous review. To sustain these efforts, Singapore needs to continue to stay abreast of world-wide measures on smoking control.

背景与目标： ：新加坡的禁烟立法措施始于1970年代初，可以说是全面吸烟控制计划的开始。随着1986年国家吸烟控制计划（NSCP）的启动，成立了国家吸烟控制协调委员会，以研究立法和财政措施。为了进一步扩大该计划的规模和影响，1996年成立了公民吸烟控制委员会。该委员会还研究并提出了立法措施。 NSCP是一项持续进行的计划，旨在通过一系列战略来降低吸烟率，这些战略包括教育，建立禁止吸烟区以及增加税收和立法措施。我们会定期，系统地审查和修订现有法律，并建议制定新法律以加强我们的吸烟控制工作。同时，还更新了罚款和改善法规执行的方式。多年来，新加坡已采取的立法措施包括禁止烟草广告和促销，限制烟草产品的销售，销售场所的许可，在烟盒上使用健康警告，控制和标记焦油和尼古丁含量，未成年人禁止在公共场所吸烟，禁止在公共场所吸烟。有几个因素帮助新加坡采取了立法措施。这些措施包括政治意愿和支持，及早开始立法，全面的立法措施，执法措施和持续审查。为了维持这些努力，新加坡需要继续与世界范围内的吸烟控制措施保持同步。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :With regard to ethics and legislation, what is the significant difference between a doctor terminating the life-supporting treatment of a patient in the course of his job and a greedy relative of the patient doing the same thing to inherit his wealth? Merkel offers an interesting and inventive answer to this question in terms of the improper violation of personal boundaries. However, despite Merkel's claim to the contrary, his answer does not directly address the question of the relevant ethical similarities and differences between killing and letting die in general. Furthermore, it does not provide the basis a plausible rationale for legislation concerning killing and letting die. The questions of whether letting someone die is ethically the same as killing someone and whether it should be treated the same way by the criminal law are not the same as or tantamount to the question of whether or not it involves the transgression of another person's boundaries.

背景与目标： ：在道德和法律方面，终止工作中的患者生命支持治疗的医生与患者为了同样地继承财产而贪婪的亲戚之间有何显着区别？默克尔以不当违反个人界限​​的方式，为这个问题提供了有趣且富有创造力的答案。但是，尽管默克尔提出了相反的主张，但他的回答并未直接解决杀害与纵容之间在伦理上的相似性和区别性的问题。此外，它没有为有关杀害和死亡的立法提供合理的依据。从伦理上说，让某人死亡与杀人是一样的问题，刑法是否应以同样的方式对待这一问题，既不等于或不等于涉及侵犯他人边界的问题。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :On May 19, 1980, a major revision in the Alabama DUI laws went into effect which gave judges greater discretion in sentencing. This revision resulted in an increase in the proportion of DUI convictions, a reduction in the number of DUI citations reduced to reckless driving, a reduction in the proportion of offenders acquitted and/or dismissed, an increase in the proportion of revocations, and an increase in court referrals to an educational program on the first offense. However, the 1980 revision was accompanied by a significant increase in the percentage of alcohol-related accidents. Consequently, the Alabama legislature revised the 1980 law on July 29, 1983, the revision taking effect immediately. The more stringent penalties in the new law apparently had a positive effect on all six alcohol-related measures cited above. Most importantly, the latest revision was accompanied by a significant decrease (2.80%) in the proportion of alcohol-related accidents.

背景与目标： ：1980年5月19日，阿拉巴马州DUI法律的重大修订生效，这赋予了法官更大的酌处权。此次修订导致DUI定罪的比例增加，减少为鲁to驾驶的DUI被引数量的减少，被无罪释放和/或被解雇的罪犯的比例减少，被撤销的比例增加以及增加在法庭上转介有关初犯的教育计划。但是，1980年的修订伴随着与酒精有关的事故百分比的显着增加。因此，阿拉巴马州立法机关于1983年7月29日修订了1980年的法律，该修订立即生效。新法律中更严厉的刑罚显然对上述所有六项与酒精有关的措施产生了积极影响。最重要的是，最新修订伴随着与酒精有关的事故比例显着下降（2.80％）。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This article investigates the impact of legal determinants of cadaveric and living donor organ transplantation rates using panel data on legislative, procedural and managerial aspects of organ transplantation and procurement, government health expenditures, enrollment rates, religious beliefs, legal systems and civil rights and liberties for 62 countries over a 2-year period. Under living donor organ transplantation, we found that guaranteeing traceability of organs by law or performing psychiatric evaluation to living donors has a sizeable, negative impact on living transplant rates once the remaining determinants of living transplantation have been controlled for. Under cadaveric transplantation, our findings do not suggest an unequivocal and positive association between presumed consent, donor registries and cadaveric transplant rates. However, legally requiring family consent or maintaining written procurement standards for deceased donors has a sizeable, negative impact on cadaveric transplant rates. The latter finding suggests that informing families rather than asking for consent may be an effective strategy to raise procurement rates while respecting patient autonomy. Finally, we confirm that predominantly non-Christian countries have significantly higher living but lower cadaveric transplant rates.

背景与目标： ：本文使用尸体数据调查了尸体和活体供体器官移植率的法律决定因素的影响，这些数据涉及器官移植和采购的立法，程序和管理方面，政府卫生支出，入学率，宗教信仰，法律制度以及公民权利和自由在两年内覆盖62个国家/地区。在活体供体器官移植的情况下，我们发现，一旦控制了活体移植的其余决定因素，就可以通过法律保证器官的可追溯性或对活体供体进行精神病学评估，对活体移植率会产生相当大的负面影响。在尸体移植下，我们的发现并不表明假定的同意，供体登记和尸体移植率之间存在明确的正相关关系。但是，在法律上要求获得家人同意或维持已故捐赠者的书面采购标准会对尸体移植率产生巨大的负面影响。后一项发现表明，告知家人而不是征得其同意可能是在尊重患者自主权的同时提高采购率的有效策略。最后，我们确认主要是非基督教国家的生活水平大大提高，但尸体移植率却更低。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Liverpool John Moores University and FRAME recently conducted a research project sponsored by Defra, on the status of alternatives to animal testing with regard to the European Union REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) system for the safety testing and risk assessment of chemicals. The project covered all the main toxicity endpoints associated with the REACH system. This paper focuses on the prospects for using alternative methods (both in vitro and in silico) for mutagenicity (genotoxicity) and carcinogenicity testing--two toxicity endpoints, which, together with reproductive toxicity, are of pivotal importance for the REACH system. The manuscript critically discusses well-established testing approaches, and in particular, the requirement for short-term in vivo tests for confirming positive mutagenicity, and the need for the rodent bioassay for detecting non-genotoxic carcinogens. Recently-proposed testing strategies focusing on non-animal approaches are also considered, and our own testing scheme is presented and supported with background information. This scheme makes maximum use of pre-existing data, computer (in silico) and in vitro methods, with weight-of-evidence assessments at each major stage. The need for the improvement of in vitro methods, to reduce the generation of false-positive results, is also discussed. Lastly, ways in which reduction and refinement measures can be used are also considered, and some recommendations are made for future research to facilitate the implementation of the proposed testing scheme.

背景与目标： ：利物浦约翰摩尔大学和FRAME最近进行了由Defra赞助的研究项目，该研究项目涉及欧盟REACH（化学品注册，评估和授权）系统中动物测试替代品的现状，以进行化学品安全性测试和风险评估。该项目涵盖了与REACH系统相关的所有主要毒性终点。本文着重介绍了使用替代方法（体外和计算机模拟）进行致突变性（遗传毒性）和致癌性测试的前景-两个毒性终点以及生殖毒性对于REACH系统至关重要。该手稿严格地讨论了已建立的测试方法，尤其是对短期的体内测试以确认阳性诱变性的要求，以及对啮齿动物生物测定法以检测非遗传毒性致癌物的需求。还考虑了最近提出的针对非动物方法的测试策略，并提出了我们自己的测试方案并提供了背景信息的支持。该方案最大程度地利用了现有数据，计算机（计算机模拟）和体外方法，并在每个主要阶段进行了证据权重评估。还讨论了改进体外方法以减少假阳性结果的产生的需求。最后，还考虑了减少和改进措施的使用方法，并为将来的研究提出了一些建议，以促进拟议的测试方案的实施。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This article reviews the current statistics of employment and work-related injuries and illness in China, as well as the history of occupational health and safety legislation in the country. Comprehensive, newly promulgated workplace health and safety legislation is described, and the specific responsibilities of employers, government agencies, trade unions, and employees are detailed. The government's implementation plan for this and prior legislation is also outlined.

背景与目标： ：本文回顾了中国目前与就业和工作有关的工伤和疾病的统计数据，以及该国职业健康和安全法规的历史。描述了新颁布的全面的工作场所健康和安全法规，并详细说明了雇主，政府机构，工会和雇员的具体职责。还概述了政府针对此法规和先前法规的实施计划。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Psychiatrists are urged to get involved in promoting legislation and public policy debates in state legislatures to effectively advocate for positive change in legislation and policy making. This column focuses on strategies that New Hampshire Psychiatric Society members have found effective in engaging policy makers and legislators in a dialogue that assertively promotes the views of patients with mental illness and the profession of psychiatry.

背景与目标： ：敦促精神科医生参与州立法机关的立法和公共政策辩论，以有效倡导立法和政策制定的积极变化。本专栏重点介绍新罕布什尔州精神病学会成员发现的有效地使决策者和立法者参与对话的策略，该对话断然地提倡了精神病患者和精神病学界的观点。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Little is known about how U.S. physicians' political affiliations, specialties, or sense of social responsibility relate to their reactions to health care reform legislation. OBJECTIVE:To assess U.S. physicians' impressions about the direction of U.S. health care under the Affordable Care Act (ACA), whether that legislation will make reimbursement more or less fair, and examine how those judgments relate to political affiliation and perceived social responsibility. DESIGN:A cross-sectional, mailed, self-reported survey. PARTICIPANTS:Simple random sample of 3,897 U.S. physicians. MAIN MEASURES:Views on the ACA in general, reimbursement under the ACA in particular, and perceived social responsibility. KEY RESULTS:Among 2,556 physicians who responded (RR2: 65 %), approximately two out of five (41 %) believed that the ACA will turn U.S. health care in the right direction and make physician reimbursement less fair (44 %). Seventy-two percent of physicians endorsed a general professional obligation to address societal health policy issues, 65 % agreed that every physician is professionally obligated to care for the uninsured or underinsured, and half (55 %) were willing to accept limits on coverage for expensive drugs and procedures for the sake of expanding access to basic health care. In multivariable analyses, liberals and independents were both substantially more likely to endorse the ACA (OR 33.0 [95 % CI, 23.6-46.2]; OR 5.0 [95 % CI, 3.7-6.8], respectively), as were physicians reporting a salary (OR 1.7 [95 % CI, 1.2-2.5]) or salary plus bonus (OR 1.4 [95 % CI, 1.1-1.9) compensation type. In the same multivariate models, those who agreed that addressing societal health policy issues are within the scope of their professional obligations (OR 1.5 [95 % CI, 1.0-2.0]), who believe physicians are professionally obligated to care for the uninsured / under-insured (OR 1.7 [95 % CI, 1.3-2.4]), and who agreed with limiting coverage for expensive drugs and procedures to expand insurance coverage (OR 2.3 [95 % CI, 1.8-3.0]), were all significantly more likely to endorse the ACA. Surgeons and procedural specialists were less likely to endorse it (OR 0.5 [95 % CI, 0.4-0.7], OR 0.6 [95 % CI, 0.5-0.9], respectively). CONCLUSIONS:Significant subsets of U.S. physicians express concerns about the direction of U.S. health care under recent health care reform legislation. Those opinions appear intertwined with political affiliation, type of medical specialty, as well as perceived social responsibility.

背景与目标： 背景：关于美国医生的政治背景，专长或社会责任感与他们对医疗改革立法的反应之间的关系知之甚少。
目的：评估《可负担医疗法案》（ACA）下美国医生对美国医疗保健方向的印象，该立法是否会使报销或多或少是公平的，并研究这些判断与政治归属和可察觉的社会责任之间的关系。
设计：横断面，邮寄，自我报告的调查。
参与者：3,897名美国医生的简单随机样本。
主要指标：对ACA的总体看法，尤其是ACA下的报销，以及感知到的社会责任。
关键结果：在做出回应的2556名医生中（RR2：65％），大约五分之二（41％）认为ACA将使美国的医疗保健朝着正确的方向发展，并使医师的报销不太公平（44％）。 72％的医生认可了解决社会卫生政策问题的一般专业义务，65％的人同意每位医生都有专业义务照顾未投保或未投保的保险，一半（55％）的人愿意接受针对昂贵医疗保险的限额药物和程序，以扩大获得基本医疗保健的机会。在多变量分析中，自由主义者和独立者都更有可能认可ACA（分别为OR 33.0 [95％CI，23.6-46.2]; OR 5.0 [95％CI，3.7-6.8]），医生报告的是薪水（OR 1.7 [95％CI，1.2-2.5]）或薪金加奖金（OR 1.4 [95％CI，1.1-1.9）薪酬类型。在相同的多元模型中，那些同意解决社会卫生政策问题在其专业义务范围内的人（OR 1.5 [95％CI，1.0-2.0]），他们相信医师在专业上有义务照顾未保险的/未成年人保险（OR 1.7 [95％CI，1.3-2.4]），并同意限制昂贵药物的承保范围和扩大保险范围的程序（OR 2.3 [95％CI，1.8-3.0]），都明显更有可能认可ACA。外科医生和程序专家不太可能认可它（OR 0.5 [95％CI，0.4-0.7]，或0.6 [95％CI，0.5-0.9]）。
结论：根据最近的医疗保健改革立法，相当一部分美国医师对美国医疗保健的方向表示担忧。这些意见似乎与政治派别，医疗专业的类型以及人们认为的社会责任交织在一起。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The sustainable management of chemicals and their associated wastes-especially legacy stockpiles-is always challenging. Developing countries face particular difficulties as they often have insufficient treatment and disposal capacity, have limited resources and many lack an appropriate and effective regulatory framework. This paper describes the objectives and the approach of the Egyptian-German Twinning Project under the European Neighbourhood Policy to improve the strategy of managing hazardous substances in the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) between November 2008 and May 2011. It also provides an introduction to the Republic of Egypt's legal and administrative system regarding chemical controls. Subsequently, options for a new chemical management strategy consistent with the recommendations of the United Nations Chemicals Conventions are proposed. The Egyptian legal and administrative system is discussed in relation to the United Nations' recommendations and current European Union legislation for the sound management of chemicals. We also discuss a strategy for the EEAA to use the existing Egyptian legal system to implement the United Nations' Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, the Stockholm Convention and other proposed regulatory frameworks. The analysis, the results, and the recommendations presented may be useful for other developing countries in a comparable position to Egypt aspiring to update their legislation and administration to the international standards of sound management of chemicals.

背景与目标： ：化学品及其相关废物（尤其是遗留库存）的可持续管理始终面临挑战。发展中国家面临特别的困难，因为它们往往没有足够的处理和处置能力，资源有限，而且许多国家缺乏适当和有效的监管框架。本文介绍了“欧洲邻国政策”下的“埃及-德国孪生项目”的目标和方法，以改善埃及环境事务局（EEAA）在2008年11月至2011年5月之间管理有害物质的策略。埃及共和国有关化学控制的法律和行政制度。随后，提出了与联合国化学品公约的建议相一致的新化学品管理战略的备选方案。讨论了埃及的法律和行政制度，涉及联合国的建议和欧盟目前对化学品进行无害管理的立法。我们还讨论了EEAA使用现有埃及法律体系实施联合国《全球化学品统一分类和标签制度》，《斯德哥尔摩公约》和其他拟议监管框架的战略。所提出的分析，结果和建议对其他处于与埃及相似地位的发展中国家可能有用，这些国家希望将其立法和行政管理更新为化学品无害管理的国际标准。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To examine how British American Tobacco (BAT) used sports sponsorship to circumvent restrictions on tobacco promotion in Thailand, both a key emerging market and a world leader in tobacco control. METHOD:Analysis of previously confidential BAT company documents. RESULTS:Since its inception in 1987, BAT's sports sponsorship programme in Thailand has been politically sensitive and legally ambiguous. Given Thailand's ban on imported cigarettes, early events provided promotional support to smuggled brands. BAT's funding of local badminton, snooker, football and cricket tournaments generated substantial media coverage for its brands. After the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs decision that obliged Thailand to open its cigarette market to imports, Thailand's 1992 tobacco control legislation established one of the world's most restrictive marketing environments. BAT's sponsorship strategy shifted to rallying and motorbike racing, using broadcasts of regional competitions to undermine national regulations. BAT sought to dominate individual sports and to shape media coverage to maximise brand awareness. An adversarial approach was adopted, testing the limits of legality and requiring active enforcement to secure compliance with legislation. CONCLUSIONS:The documents show the opportunities offered by sports sponsorship to tobacco companies amid increasing advertising restrictions. Before the 1992 tobacco control legislation, sponsored events in Thailand promoted international brands by combining global and local imagery. The subsequent strategy of "regionalisation as defensibility" reflected the capacity of international sport to transcend domestic restrictions. These transnational effects may be effectively dealt with via the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, but will require the negotiation of a specific protocol.

背景与目标： 目的：研究英美烟草公司（BAT）如何利用体育赞助来规避泰国的烟草促销限制，泰国既是一个重要的新兴市场，又是世界烟草控制的领导者。
方法：分析先前机密的BAT公司文件。
结果：自1987年成立以来，英美烟草公司在泰国的体育赞助计划一直具有政治敏感性和法律上的模棱两可。鉴于泰国禁止进口卷烟，早期活动为走私品牌提供了促销支持。英美烟草公司对当地羽毛球，斯诺克，足球和板球比赛的资助为其品牌吸引了大量媒体报道。在《贸易和关税总协定》决定迫使泰国向进口商品开放卷烟市场之后，泰国于1992年实施的烟草控制立法确立了世界上限制性最强的营销环境之一。英美烟草公司的赞助策略已转向集会和摩托车赛车，使用区域比赛的广播来破坏国家法规。英美烟草公司试图控制个人运动，并形成媒体报道以最大程度地提高品牌知名度。采用了对抗性方法，测试了合法性的限制，并要求积极执法以确保遵守法律。
结论：文件显示，在广告限制日益增加的情况下，体育赞助为烟草公司提供了机会。在1992年烟草控制法规颁布之前，在泰国举办的赞助活动通过结合全球和本地形象来推广国际品牌。随后的“将区域划分为防御性”战略反映了国际体育运动超越国内限制的能力。这些跨国影响可以通过《烟草控制框架公约》得到有效处理，但需要就特定协议进行谈判。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To evaluate pollution by second-hand smoke in a sample of hospitality venues before and after the implementation of smoke-free legislation. METHODS:A cross sectional, before-after study was conducted in 2008 and 2011 after the total ban. A SidePack Aerosol monitor was used both inside and outside the hospitality venues to measure fine breathable particles (PM2.5). A total of 43 places with pre- and post-legislation measurements were included. RESULTS:The median indoor pollution in hospitality venues was 204.2μg/m(3) in 2008 and 18.82μg/m(3) in 2011; the average outdoor PM2.5 concentration was 47.04μg/m(3) in 2008 and 18.82μg/m(3) in 2011. Pollution was higher in bars and cafeterias, followed by pubs and discos. Before the law was implemented, pollution was 4.34 times higher indoors than outdoors; in 2011 the average indoor PM2.5 concentration decreased by 90.88%. CONCLUSIONS:Only a complete ban is able to protect workers and customers against the health risks of second-hand smoke exposure.

背景与目标： 目的：在实施无烟立法前后，评估接待场所样本中的二手烟污染。
方法：在全面禁令实施之后，于2008年和2011年进行了一项横断面的前后研究。在接待场所的内部和外部都使用了SidePack气溶胶监测仪，以测量可呼吸的细颗粒物（PM2.5）。总共有43个地方进行了立法前和立法后的测量。
结果：酒店场所的室内污染中位数在2008年为204.2μg/ m（3），在2011年为18.82μg/ m（3）;室外PM2.5的平均浓度在2008年为47.04μg/ m（3），在2011年为18.82μg/ m（3）。酒吧和自助餐厅的污染程度更高，其次是酒吧和迪斯科舞厅。在实施该法律之前，室内污染是室外的4.34倍。 2011年，室内平均PM2.5浓度下降了90.88％。
结论：只有全面的禁令才能保护工人和客户免受二手烟暴露对健康的危害。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Despite recent changes in legislation in several countries and general reduction in the use of animals in biomedical research, the impatience of antivivisectionists to see reductions in animal experimentation shows no signs of abating. Gerhard Zbinden analyses the reasons for this continuing dissatisfaction, arguing that real progress has been made in biomedical research, but that the complexities of developing internationally recognized regulations constitute a barrier to rapid change in product safety testing methods.

背景与目标： ：尽管最近几个国家的立法有所变化，并且生物医学研究中动物的使用普遍减少，但抗活体解剖学家急于看到动物实验的减少并未显示出减弱的迹象。 Gerhard Zbinden分析了这种持续不满的原因，认为生物医学研究已经取得了真正的进展，但是制定国际认可的法规的复杂性构成了产品安全测试方法快速变化的障碍。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To examine how a government committed to a voluntary approach was forced by an effective advocacy coalition to introduce comprehensive smoke-free legislation. METHODS:A diary was kept from the start of the campaign in 2003, backed up by journal and press articles, and information downloaded from the web. Regular public opinion polls were also carried out to supplement government surveys and polls conducted by the media. RESULTS:The 1997 Labour Government was committed to a voluntary approach to deal with the problem of secondhand smoke. By 2003, efforts to persuade government to introduce regulation of workplace secondhand smoke through a health and safety code of practice with exemptions for the hospitality trade, had failed. Despite a lack of support from the government, including the health minister, a new strategy by health advocates focusing on comprehensive workplace legislation was able to succeed. CONCLUSIONS:In a democracy it is crucial to develop public knowledge and belief in the extent of the risks of secondhand smoke. Gaining public and media support for the issue can ensure that government has to take action and that the legislation will be enforceable. The interests of the tobacco industry and the hospitality trade differ and this can be used to gain hospitality trade support for comprehensive national legislation in order to ensure a level playing field and protection from litigation.

背景与目标： 目的：研究有效的倡导联盟如何迫使政府对自愿性方法作出承诺，以引入全面的无烟立法。
方法：从2003年竞选开始以来就保留了日记，并以日记和新闻文章以及从网上下载的信息为后盾。还进行了定期的民意调查，以补充政府的调查和媒体的民意调查。
结果：1997年工党政府致力于采取自愿措施来解决二手烟问题。到2003年，试图说服政府通过健康和安全行为守则对酒店二手烟进行管制的规定并获得了招待业豁免，但这种努力失败了。尽管缺乏包括卫生部长在内的政府的支持，但卫生倡导者针对综合工作场所立法的新战略还是取得了成功。
结论：在民主国家中，发展公众对二手烟危害程度的认识和信念至关重要。在此问题上获得公众和媒体的支持可以确保政府必须采取行动，并且该立法将是可执行的。烟草业和酒店业的利益各不相同，这可用于获得对国家综合立法的酒店业支持，以确保公平的竞争环境和免受诉讼的侵害。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Introduction:In 2011, the Spanish partial smoke-free legislation was extended to affect all enclosed settings, including hospitality venues and selected outdoor areas. This study evaluated the change in self-reported exposure to secondhand smoke among the adult, nonsmoking population. Methods:Two cross-sectional surveys were conducted on nationally representative samples of the adult (≥18 years) nonsmoking Spanish population. One was conducted in 2006 (6 months after the first ban) and the other in 2011, 6 months after the new ban was implemented. We assessed the prevalence and 95% confidence interval (CI) of self-reported exposure to secondhand smoke in various settings, and the corresponding adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) and 95% CIs. Results:Overall, the self-reported exposure to secondhand smoke fell from 71.9% (95% CI: 70.1%-73.7%) in 2006 to 45.2% (95% CI: 43.1%-47.3%) in 2011 (PR = 0.43; 95% CI: 0.39-0.47). Specifically, self-reported exposure significantly decreased from 29.2% to 12.7% (PR = 0.36; 95% CI: 0.31-0.42) in the home, from 35.0% to 13.0% (PR = 0.40; 95% CI: 0.33-0.49) at work/education venues, from 56.2% to 32.2% (PR = 0.44; 95% CI: 0.39-0.48) during leisure time (mainly hospitality venues, but also venues other than work/education venues and home), and from 40.6% to 12.7% (PR = 0.24; 95% CI: 0.21-0.29) in transportation vehicles/stations. Conclusions:The prevalence of secondhand smoke exposure among nonsmokers decreased after implementation of a comprehensive smoke-free legislation in Spain. In addition to the expected reduction in exposure during leisure time, we observed reductions in settings that were not subject to the new legislation, such as homes, outdoor bus stops, and train stations. Implications:Exposure to secondhand smoke in selected outdoor settings may be further reduced by extending smoke-free legislation.

背景与目标： 简介：2011年，西班牙将部分禁烟法规扩大到所有封闭环境，包括接待场所和部分室外区域。这项研究评估了成年人，非吸烟人群自我报告的二手烟暴露量的变化。
方法：对西班牙非吸烟成年人（≥18岁）的全国代表性样本进行了两次横断面调查。一项是在2006年（第一次禁令后6个月）进行的，另一次是在2011年，即新禁令实施后6个月进行的。我们评估了各种情况下自我报告的二手烟暴露的患病率和95％置信区间（CI），以及相应的调整患病率（PR）和95％CI。
结果：总体而言，自我报告的二手烟暴露从2006年的71.9％（95％CI：70.1％-73.7％）下降到2011年的45.2％（95％CI：43.1％-47.3％）（PR = 0.43; 95％CI：0.39-0.47）。具体而言，家庭中自我报告的暴露从29.2％显着降低至12.7％（PR = 0.36; 95％CI：0.31-0.42），从35.0％降低至13.0％（PR = 0.40; 95％CI：0.33-0.49）在工作/教育场所，闲暇时间（主要是招待场所，也包括工作/教育场所和家庭以外的场所）从56.2％增至32.2％（PR = 0.44; 95％CI：0.39-0.48），并且从40.6％到运输车辆/车站的12.7％（PR = 0.24; 95％CI：0.21-0.29）。
结论：西班牙实施了全面的无烟立法后，不吸烟者中二手烟暴露的患病率下降了。除了可以预期减少休闲时间的暴露外，我们还观察到了房屋，户外公交车站和火车站等不受新法规约束的环境的减少。
含义：通过扩大无烟法规，可以进一步减少在选定的室外环境下接触二手烟的机会。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Pseudoephedrine (PSE) is one of the main ingredients used to manufacture methamphetamine (MA); approximately 700 to 1000 PSE pills are necessary to "cook" a batch of MA. Steps have been taken to decrease the availability of ingredients needed to concoct MA. On May 21, 2005, the state of Iowa enacted a strict law, making PSE a Schedule V Controlled substance, restricting PSE availability, and sales. Using the same 6-month time frames in 2004 and 2005, we retrospectively compared epidemiological data on burn patients in the year before the new PSE law and again immediately after the law was enacted. Data collected between May 21 to December 31, 2004 and 2005 included sex, age, length of stay, body surface area burn, urine drug toxicity status, insurance status, and cost of hospital stay. Reports on statewide MA laboratory incidents were provided by the Office of Drug Control Policy. In 2004, Iowa ranked second in the nation for MA lab incidents, seizing an average of 120 labs per month. In 2006, Iowa ranked eighth in the nation for MA lab incidents, when only 20 labs per month were seized, an 83% decreased from the previous year. By limiting the availability of PSE, Iowa saw a marked decrease in MA laboratory-related incidents, leading to a drastic decrease in MA related burns statewide.

背景与目标： ：伪麻黄碱（PSE）是用于制造甲基苯丙胺（MA）的主要成分之一；大约需要700到1000个PSE药丸来“煮制”一批MA。已经采取措施减少炮制MA所需成分的可用性。 2005年5月21日，爱荷华州制定了严格的法律，将PSE列为附表V受控物质，限制了PSE的供应和销售。使用2004年和2005年相同的6个月时间框架，我们回顾性比较了新《 PSE法》颁布前一年和该法颁布后立即进行的烧伤患者的流行病学数据。在2004年5月21日至12月31日至2005年之间收集的数据包括性别，年龄，住院时间，体表烧伤，尿液药物中毒状态，保险状态和住院费用。药物管制政策办公室提供了有关全州MA实验室事件的报告。 2004年，爱荷华州在MA实验室事件方面名列全美第二，平均每月要夺取120个实验室。 2006年，爱荷华州在MA实验室事件中排名全国第八，每月仅缉获20个实验室，比上一年下降了83％。通过限制PSE的可用性，爱荷华州看到与MA实验室相关的事件明显减少，从而导致全州与MA相关的烧伤急剧减少。