BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The preliminary LC-MS investigation on the stems of Nouelia insignis manifested the existence of diterpenoids. As a result, 15 ent-kaurane diterpenoids, including 7 new glycosides (nouelosides A-G, 1-7), were isolated under the direction of LC-MS analysis. The new compounds were determined by extensive spectroscopic analysis including HRESIMS, 1D and 2D NMR data and chemical methods. Compounds 6 and 15 with the exo-methylene cyclopentanone functional group exhibited obvious nitric oxide production inhibitory activity with IC50 values of 3.84±0.20 and 3.19±0.25μM.

背景与目标： ：对Nouelia insignis茎进行的LC-MS初步研究表明存在二萜类化合物。结果，在LC-MS分析的指导下，分离出了15种新戊香烷双萜类化合物，其中包括7种新的苷（Nouelosides A-G，1-7）。通过广泛的光谱分析，包括HRESIMS，1D和2D NMR数据以及化学方法，确定了这些新化合物。具有外亚甲基环戊酮官能团的化合物6和15表现出明显的一氧化氮生成抑制活性，IC50值为3.84±0.20和3.19±0.25μM。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Two new diterpenes and ent-15alpha-hydroxykaur-16-en-19-oic acid 11,12-acetonide (3), together with 23 known compounds were isolated from the dried aerial parts of Nouelia insignis Franch. The structures of new compounds were determined to be ent-14beta,15alpha-dihydroxykaur-16-en-19-oic acid (1), ent-14beta-hydroxy-15-oxokaur-16-en-19-oic acid (2) on the basis of spectral and chemical evidence. The structure of ent-11alpha,16alpha-epoxy-15alpha-hydroxy-16S-kaur-19-oic acid (4) was confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis.

背景与目标： ：从干燥的Nouelia insignis Franch的地上部分中分离出两个新的二萜和15-15-羟基kaur-16-en-19-乙酸十一酸丙酮酯（3），以及23种已知化合物。确定新化合物的结构为ent-14beta，15alpha-dihydroxykaur-16-en-19-oic acid（1），ent-14beta-hydroxy-15-oxokaur-16-en-19-oic acid（2）根据光谱和化学证据。通过X射线晶体学分析证实了ent-11α，16α-环氧-15α-羟基-16S-kaur-19-oic酸（4）的结构。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Phytoecdysteroid glucosides, brainesterosides A-E, were isolated from the rhizomes of Brainea insignis along with three known phytoecdysteroids, ponasteroside A, ponasterone A, and 20-hydroxyecdysone. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic and chemical means. A possible biogenetic pathway is postulated for these compounds. The chemosystematic significance of ponasterone A is discussed.

背景与目标： ：蜕皮甾体苷，脑脂苷A-E与3种已知的植物蜕皮甾体，皂甙A，ponasterone A和20-羟基蜕皮甾酮一起被分离自Brainea insignis的根茎。通过光谱和化学方法阐明了它们的结构。推测这些化合物可能的生物遗传途径。讨论了ponasterone A的化学系统意义。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Four new compounds, maninsigins A-D (1-4), including two new neolignans (1-2) and two new sesquiterpenes (3-4), as well as ten known compounds (5-14), were isolated from the leaves and stems of Manglietia insignis. Their structures were established on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analyses. In addition, some compounds were tested for their cytotoxic and neurite outgrowth-promoting activities, as well as their antagonistic activity toward FXR ligand.

背景与目标： 从叶子中分离出四种新化合物，Maninsigins AD（1-4），包括两个新的新木脂素（1-2）和两个新的倍半萜（3-4），以及十个已知的化合物（5-14）。莲gli的茎。它们的结构是在广泛的光谱分析的基础上建立的。另外，测试了某些化合物的细胞毒性和神经突生长促进活性，以及​​它们对FXR配体的拮抗活性。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Microbial resistance to antibiotics is a global public health problem, which requires urgent attention. Platonia insignis is a native species from the eastern Brazilian Amazon, used in the treatment of burns and wounds. OBJECTIVES:To evaluate the antimicrobial activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of P. insignis (PIHA), the ethyl acetate fraction (PIAE), and its subfraction containing a mixture of biflavonoids (BF). Moreover, the effect of these natural products on the antibiotic activity against S. aureus strains overexpressing efflux pump genes was also evaluated. METHODS:Minimal inhibitory concentrations were determined against different species of microorganisms. To evaluate the modulatory effect on the Norfloxacin-resistance, the MIC of this antibiotic was determined in the absence and presence of the natural products at subinhibitory concentrations. Inhibition of the EtBr efflux assays were conducted in the absence or presence of the natural products. RESULTS:PIHA showed a microbicidal effect against S. aureus and C. albicans, while PIAE was bacteriosctatic for S. aureus. PIAE and BF at subinhibitory concentrations were able to reduce the MIC of Norfloxacin acting as modulating agents. BF was able to inhibit the efflux of EtBr efflux in S. aureus strains overexpressing specific efflux pump genes. CONCLUSION:P. inignisis a source of efflux pump inhibitors, including volkensiflavone and morelloflavone which were able to potentiate the Norfloxacin activity by NorA inhibition, being also able to inhibit QacA/B, TetK and MsrA. Volkensiflavone and morelloflavone could be used as adjuvant in the antibiotic therapy of multidrug resistant S. aureus strains overexpressing efflux pumps.

背景与目标： 背景：微生物对抗生素的耐药性是一个全球性的公共卫生问题，亟待关注。 Platonia insignis是来自巴西东部亚马逊的原生物种，用于烧伤和伤口的治疗。
目的：评估权威假单胞菌（PIHA），乙酸乙酯级分（PIAE）及其包含双黄酮类混合物（BF）的子级分的水醇提取物的抗菌活性。此外，还评估了这些天然产物对针对过表达外排泵基因的金黄色葡萄球菌菌株的抗生素活性的影响。
方法：测定对不同种类微生物的最低抑菌浓度。为了评估对诺氟沙星抗性的调节作用，在不存在和存在亚抑菌浓度的天然产物的情况下，测定该抗生素的MIC。在不存在或存在天然产物的情况下进行EtBr外排测定的抑制。
结果：PIHA对金黄色葡萄球菌和白色念珠菌具有杀菌作用，而PIAE对金黄色葡萄球菌具有杀菌作用。亚抑菌浓度下的PIAE和BF能够降低诺氟沙星作为调节剂的MIC。 BF能够抑制过表达特定外排泵基因的金黄色葡萄球菌菌株中EtBr外排。
结论：P。激发了外排泵抑制剂的来源，其中包括Volkensiflavone和morelloflavone，它们能够通过NorA抑制来增强Norfloxacin的活性，还能够抑制QacA / B，TetK和MsrA。 Volkensiflavone和morelloflavone可以用作过度表达外排泵的耐多药金黄色葡萄球菌菌株的抗生素治疗的佐剂。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The pattern of shell occupation by the hermit crab Dardanus insignis (Saussure, 1858) from the subtropical region of southeastern coast of Brazil was investigated in the present study. The percentage of shell types that were occupied and the morphometric relationships between hermit crabs and occupied shells were analyzed from monthly collections conducted during two years (from January 1998 to December 1999). Individuals were categorized according to sex and gonadal maturation, weighed and measured with respect to their cephalothoracic shield length (CSL) and wet weight (CWW). Shells were measured regarding their aperture width (SAW), dry weight (SDW) and internal volume (SIV). A total of 1086 hermit crabs was collected, occupying shells of 11 gastropod species. Olivancillaria urceus (Roding, 1798) was most commonly used by the hermit crab D. insignis, followed by Buccinanops cochlidium (Dillwyn, 1817), and Stramonita haemastoma (Linnaeus, 1767). The highest determination coefficients (r2 > 0.50, p < 0.01) were recorded particularly in the morphometric relationships between CSL vs. CWW and SAW vs. SIV, which are important indication that in this D. insignis population the great majority the animals occupied adequate shells during the two years analysed. The high number of used shell species and relative plasticity in pattern of shell utilization by smaller individuals of D. insignis indicated that occupation is influenced by the shell availability, while larger individuals demonstrated more specialized occupation in Tonna galea (Linnaeus, 1758) shell.

背景与目标： ：在本研究中，研究了巴西东南沿海亚热带地区的寄居蟹达达努斯·印尼迪斯（Dardanus insignis，Saussure，1858年）对贝壳的占领方式。根据两年（1998年1月至1999年12月）每月收集的数据分析了被占领的贝壳类型的百分比以及寄居蟹与被占领贝壳之间的形态关系。根据性别和性腺成熟度对个体进行分类，称重并根据其头颈胸盾长度（CSL）和湿重（CWW）进行测量。测量了壳的孔径宽度（SAW），干重（SDW）和内部体积（SIV）。总共收集了1086只寄居蟹，占据了11种腹足动物的壳。寄居蟹D. insignis最常使用的是Olivancillaria urceus（Roding，1798年），其次是Buccinanops cochlidium（Dillwyn，1817年）和Stramonita haemastoma（Linnaeus，1767年）。特别是在CSL与CWW和SAW与SIV之间的形态计量关系中，记录了最高的测定系数（r2> 0.50，p <0.01），这很重要地表明，在该D. insignis种群中，绝大多数动物都占据了足够的壳在分析的两年中。较小的D. insignis个体使用的贝壳种类数量众多，并且在贝壳利用模式中具有相对可塑性，这表明占领受贝壳可用性的影响，而较大的个体表现出对Tonna galea（Linnaeus，1758）贝壳更为专业的占领。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The human body is colonized by a diverse collective of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. The smallest entity of this microbial conglomerate are the bacterial viruses. Bacteriophages, or phages for short, exert significant selective pressure on their bacterial hosts, undoubtedly influencing the human microbiome and its impact on our health and well-being. Phages colonize all niches of the body, including the skin, oral cavity, lungs, gut, and urinary tract. As such our bodies are frequently and continuously exposed to diverse collections of phages. Despite the prevalence of phages throughout our bodies, the extent of their interactions with human cells, organs, and immune system is still largely unknown. Phages physically interact with our mucosal surfaces, are capable of bypassing epithelial cell layers, disseminate throughout the body and may manipulate our immune system. Here, I establish the novel concept of an "intra-body phageome," which encompasses the collection of phages residing within the classically "sterile" regions of the body. This review will take a phage-centric view of the microbiota, human body, and immune system with the ultimate goal of inspiring a greater appreciation for both the indirect and direct interactions between bacteriophages and their mammalian hosts.

背景与目标： ：人体被各种各样的微生物定居，包括细菌，真菌，原生动物和病毒。该微生物集团的最小实体是细菌病毒。噬菌体（简称噬菌体）对细菌宿主施加显着的选择性压力，无疑会影响人类微生物组及其对我们的健康和福祉的影响。噬菌体定居于身体的所有壁ni，包括皮肤，口腔，肺，肠和泌尿道。因此，我们的身体经常不断暴露于各种噬菌体中。尽管噬菌体在整个人体中普遍存在，但它们与人类细胞，器官和免疫系统的相互作用程度仍是未知之数。噬菌体与我们的粘膜表面发生物理相互作用，能够绕过上皮细胞层，在整个人体中传播，并可能操纵我们的免疫系统。在这里，我建立了“体内噬菌体”的新概念，其中涵盖了在体内经典的“无菌”区域内存在的噬菌体的集合。这篇综述将以噬菌体为中心，对微生物群，人体和免疫系统进行研究，其最终目标是激发人们对噬菌体与其哺乳动物宿主之间间接和直接相互作用的更多认识。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :From 106 ferrets experimentally infected with Dracunculus insignis, 273 female worms and 42 male worms were recovered. The percentage of female worms that mated, the location of all worms, and the rate of emergence of gravid females were recorded. Of 174 mature female worms recovered, only 11% had emerged before necropsy. Eighty-one percent of the male worms and 87% of all unmated (immature) females were found on the trunk of the animal or on the skin overlying it. Gravid female worms were found on the extremities (legs) 88% of the time. Almost one-third of gravid female worms were found on the left front leg. On 4 occasions, females were found in unusual locations: the tail, the cheek, the lumbar region of the spinal cord, and the peritoneal cavity associated with the omentum. The results showed that only a small percentage of mature female worms emerge, which suggests that infected persons harbor many more gravid female worms than indicated by reports of emergent worms. More than one-third of female worms were not mated, but it is likely that these immature females would be capable of further development. Furthermore, male worms have been observed to survive for up to 330 days, suggesting that male or unmated female worms may carry over from one transmission season to the next.

背景与目标： ：从实验性感染了印度龙的106只雪貂中，发现了273只雌性蠕虫和42只雄性蠕虫。记录交配的雌虫的百分比，所有蠕虫的位置以及妊娠雌虫的出现率。在恢复的174种成熟雌性蠕虫中，尸检前仅出现11％。在动物的躯干或覆盖它的皮肤上发现了81％的雄性蠕虫和87％的所有未交配（未成熟）雌性。 88％的时间在四肢（腿）上发现了严重的雌性蠕虫。在左前腿发现了约三分之一的妊娠雌虫。有4次在不寻常的位置发现雌性：尾巴，脸颊，脊髓的腰部区域以及与网膜相关的腹膜腔。结果表明，只有很少一部分成熟的雌性蠕虫出现，这表明受感染的人所藏的雌性蠕虫比出现的蠕虫报告所指示的要多得多。超过三分之一的雌性蠕虫没有交配，但这些未成熟的雌性很可能能够进一步发育。此外，据观察，雄性蠕虫可以存活多达330天，这表明雄性或未交配的雌性蠕虫可能会从一个传播季节延续到下一个传播季节。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A new furan derivative named 3-(5-oxo-2,5-dihydrofuran-3-yl) propanoic acid (1) was isolated for the first time. Its structure was elucidated by UV, IR, NMR, HR-ESI-MS and the single-crystal X-ray diffraction spectroscopic data. Meanwhile, the antifungal and antibacterial activities of compound 1 was tested, it exhibited potent antifungal activity against Fusarium graminearum with MIC value of 16 µg/mL and medium antibacterial activity against Streptococcus lactis with MIC value of 32 µg/mL.

背景与目标： ：首次分离出一种新的呋喃衍生物，名为3-（5-氧代-2,5-二氢呋喃-3-基）丙酸（1）。通过UV，IR，NMR，HR-ESI-MS和单晶X射线衍射光谱数据阐明了其结构。同时，测试了化合物1的抗真菌和抗菌活性，它对禾谷镰孢具有强效的抗微生物活性，MIC值为16μg/ mL，对乳酸链球菌具有中等的抗菌活性，MIC值为32μg/ mL。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: CONTEXT:Platonia insignis Mart. (Clusiaceae), commonly known as "bacuri," is a timber and fruit native species of the Brazilian Amazon. Some plants of the Clusiaceae family have their pharmacological properties associated with the presence of xanthone and polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols derivatives, which have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic activities. OBJECTIVE:The aim of this study was to assess the in vivo potential of extracts, fractions, and garcinielliptone FC isolated from of Platonia insignis seeds as a natural antioxidant. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Male Wistar rats (250-280 g; 2 months old) were treated with Tween 80 0.05% dissolved in 0.9% saline (i.p, vehicle - control group), ethanol extract (EE), hexane extract (HE), dichloromethane fraction (DMF), ethyl acetate fraction (EAF), and garcinielliptone FC (GFC) isolated from P. insignis at doses 2 mg/kg (i.p.). All groups were observed for 24 h after the treatment. The antioxidant enzymatic activities [superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)] were measured using spectrophotometric methods. RESULTS:There were no marked alterations in SOD and CAT activities in rat hippocampus after pretreatment with EE, HE, DMF, EAF, and GFC. However, the pretreatment with GFC induced a significantly increase of 13, 17, 19, and 13% in SOD activities when compared to EE, HE, DMF, or EAF groups, respectively. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:Our findings strongly support the hypothesis that GFC isolated from P. insignis has a significant potential to be used as a natural antioxidant agent probably due to the modulation of enzymatic activity of hippocampal SOD.

背景与目标： 背景：Platonia insignis Mart。 （Clusiaceae），俗称“ bacuri”，是巴西亚马逊河地区的一种木材和水果原生种。伞形科的一些植物具有与黄酮和具有抗氧化和抗癌活性的多环多烯丙基化酰基间苯三酚衍生物有关的药理特性。
目的：本研究的目的是评估从柏叶籽作为天然抗氧化剂分离出的提取物，级分和藤黄内酯FC的体内潜力。
材料与方法：雄性Wistar大鼠（250-280μg； 2个月大），将Tween 80 0.05％溶于0.9％生理盐水（ip，赋形剂-对照组），乙醇提取物（EE），己烷提取物（HE），从徽章假单胞菌中分离出的二氯甲烷级分（DMF），乙酸乙酯级分（EAF）和藤黄素FC（GFC）的剂量为2 mg / kg（ip）。治疗后观察所有组24 h。使用分光光度法测量抗氧化剂的酶活性[超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）和过氧化氢酶（CAT）]。
结果：EE，HE，DMF，EAF和GFC预处理后，大鼠海马的SOD和CAT活性没有明显变化。但是，与EE，HE，DMF或EAF组相比，用GFC预处理分别导致SOD活性显着增加13％，17％，19％和13％。
讨论与结论：我们的发现强有力地支持了这样的假设，即从徽章假单胞菌中分离出的GFC具有潜在的天然抗氧化剂作用，这可能是由于海马SOD的酶促活性调节所致。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A list is provided for the species of Ectinorus sensu stricto from Chile. Ectinorus (Ectinorus) insignis n. sp. is described from Chile: this species is characterized by the male genitalia. In the subgenus Ectinorus, the authors report the presence in Chile of E. pilosus Beaucournu & Carmen Castro, 2002 described from Argentina and E. simonsi (Rothschild, 1904) described from Bolivia but also known from Peru. A female neallotype is designated for E. ineptus Johnson, 1957. "Unciform sclerotization" is noted and illustrated for the first time, in all Malacopsylloidea, and a list is given for all studied species.

背景与目标： ：提供了来自智利的严格的Ectinorus sensu物种的列表。牛尾草（Ectinorus）insignis n。 sp。从智利描述：该物种的特征是男性生殖器。在埃克诺斯龙属中，作者报告了智利出现的E. pilosus Beaucournu＆Carmen Castro，2002年，描述于阿根廷，E。simonsi（Rothschild，1904年）描述于玻利维亚，但秘鲁也存在。 1957年，约翰逊大肠杆菌（E. ineptus Johnson）被指定为雌性神经型。在所有的拟南芥中首次发现并图示了“ Unciform sclerotization”，并列出了所有已研究物种的清单。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE:Hepatic injury after cardiac surgery is considered to be a consequence of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that penehyclidine hydrochloride (PHC) could attenuate hepatic injury using a rat CPB model. METHODS:Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into six groups (eight per group), including sham-operated control, sham low-dose PHC control (0.6 mg kg), sham high-dose PHC control (2.0 mg kg), vehicle control, low-dose PHC (0.6 mg kg) and high-dose PHC (2.0 mg kg)-treated groups. Blood samples were collected from the femoral artery at the cessation of CPB and the serum levels of the liver enzymes, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were determined. The ultrastructure of liver tissue was also examined under an electron microscope. RESULTS:In the sham-operated groups, high-dose PHC and low-dose PHC had no significant impact on the levels of respiratory rate, heart rate, blood pressure, ECG, ALT or AST. Compared with the sham group, the serum levels of ALT and AST were increased significantly in the surgical groups. PHC alleviated all the biochemical and histopathological changes in a dose-dependent manner. The ALT and AST levels in the high-dose PHC-treated groups were significantly lower than those in the vehicle control group. CONCLUSION:Treatment with penehyclidine hydrochloride could improve liver function during CPB.

背景与目标： 背景与目的：心脏手术后的肝损伤被认为是体外循环（CPB）的结果。这项研究的目的是检验使用大鼠CPB模型建立的盐酸戊乙奎醚（PHC）可以减轻肝损伤的假说。
方法：雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠随机分为六组（每组八只），包括假手术对照组，假低剂量PHC对照组（0.6 mg kg），假高剂量PHC对照组（2.0 mg kg），媒介物对照组，低剂量PHC（0.6 mg kg）和高剂量PHC（2.0 mg kg）治疗组。在CPB停止时从股动脉收集血液样品，并测定包括丙氨酸氨基转移酶（ALT）和天冬氨酸氨基转移酶（AST）在内的肝酶的血清水平。肝组织的超微结构也在电子显微镜下检查。
结果：在假手术组中，高剂量PHC和低剂量PHC对呼吸频率，心率，血压，ECG，ALT或AST水平没有显着影响。与假手术组相比，手术组的血清ALT和AST水平明显升高。 PHC以剂量依赖的方式减轻了所有生化和组织病理学变化。高剂量PHC治疗组的ALT和AST水平显着低于溶媒对照组。
结论：盐酸戊乙奎酯治疗可改善CPB期间的肝功能。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Salix cardiophylla was a member of the genus of Salix in family Salicaceae with unique morphological traits, and once recognized as a separate genus, Toisusu Kimura. Here, we sequenced and assembled the complete mitochondrial genome of S. cardiophylla, which was 735,173 bp in length, including 56 genes, 28 protein-coding genes, 3 rRNA genes, 25 tRNA genes, and one large inverted repeat regions with length of 13,603 bp. Phylogenetic analysis based on 26 mitochondrial CDS confirmed that S. cardiophylla is a member of Salix, and support its merge into Salix in aspect of our new insights on mitogenome phylogenomics.

背景与目标： ：Salix cardiophylla是杨柳科柳柳属的一员，具有独特的形态学特征，曾被认为是独居木藻藤生。在这里，我们测序并组装了全长为735,173 bp的心叶链球菌的线粒体基因组，包括56个基因，28个蛋白质编码基因，3个rRNA基因，25个tRNA基因以及一个长度为13,603个大的反向重复序列bp。基于26个线粒体CDS的系统发育分析证实，心叶葡萄球菌是柳属的一员，并在我们对有丝分裂基因组系统组学的新见解中支持柳叶柳合并到柳属中。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Analyses of resource presentation, floral morphology and pollinator behaviour are essential for understanding specialised plant-pollinator systems. We investigated whether foraging by individual bee pollinators fits the floral morphology and functioning of Blumenbachia insignis, whose flowers are characterised by a nectar scale-staminode complex and pollen release by thigmonastic stamen movements. We described pollen and nectar presentation, analysed the breeding system and the foraging strategy of bee pollinators. We determined the nectar production pattern and documented variations in the longevity of floral phases and stigmatic pollen loads of pollinator-visited and unvisited flowers. Bicolletes indigoticus (Colletidae) was the sole pollinator with females revisiting flowers in staminate and pistillate phases at short intervals, guaranteeing cross-pollen flow. Nectar stored in the nectar scale-staminode complex had a high sugar concentration and was produced continuously in minute amounts (~0.09 μl·h-1 ). Pushing the scales outward, bees took up nectar, triggering stamen movements and accelerating pollen presentation. Experimental simulation of this nectar uptake increased the number of moved stamens per hour by a factor of four. Flowers visited by pollinators received six-fold more pollen on the stigma than unvisited flowers, had shortened staminate and pistillate phases and increased fruit and seed set. Flower handling and foraging by Bicolletes indigoticus were consonant with the complex flower morphology and functioning of Blumenbachia insignis. Continuous nectar production in minute quantities but at high sugar concentration influences the pollen foraging of the bees. Partitioning of resources lead to absolute flower fidelity and stereotyped foraging behaviour by the sole effective oligolectic bee pollinator.

背景与目标： ：对资源的表达，花的形态和传粉媒介行为的分析对于理解专业的植物传粉系统至关重要。我们调查了单个蜜蜂授粉者觅食是否适合花形形态和功能的Blumenbachia insignis，其花朵的特征是花蜜鳞茎-退化雄激素复合体和花粉的雄蕊雄蕊运动释放花粉。我们描述了花粉和花蜜的表现，分析了蜜蜂授粉媒介的繁殖系统和觅食策略。我们确定了花蜜的生产模式，并记录了花粉寿命的长短以及授粉者访问和未访问的花朵的花粉负载量的变化。雌性双花粉虱（Colletidae indigoticus）是唯一的授粉媒介，雌性以短间隔重访花在雌蕊和雌蕊阶段的花，从而保证了花粉的交叉流动。存储在花蜜鳞片-氨基甲酸酯复合物中的花蜜具有较高的糖浓度，并以微量（〜0.09μl·h-1）连续产生。蜜蜂将鳞片向外推，吸收了花蜜，触发了雄蕊运动并加速了花粉的出现。对这种花蜜摄取的实验模拟使每小时移动的雄蕊数量增加了四倍。授粉者访问的花在柱头上的花粉比未看过的花多六倍，缩短了雄蕊和雌蕊相的时间，并增加了果实和种子的结实率。 Bicolletes indigoticus的花朵处理和觅食与徽蓝假花的复杂花朵形态和功能是一致的。少量连续花蜜生产但糖浓度高会影响蜜蜂的花粉觅食。资源分配导致唯一的有效低聚蜂授粉者实现绝对的花朵保真度和定型的觅食行为。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Inhibiting osteoclasts and osteoclast precursors to reduce bone resorption is an important strategy to treat osteoclast-related diseases, such as osteoporosis, inflammatory bone loss, and malignant bone metastasis. However, the mechanism by which apoptosis is induced in the osteoclasts and their precursors are not completely understood. Here, we used nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate zoledronic acid (ZA) to induce cell apoptosis in human and murine osteoclast precursors and mature osteoclast-like cells. Caspase-3-mediated cell apoptosis occurred following the ZA (100 μM) treatment. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also generated in a time-dependent manner. Following knock-down of the p47phox expression, which is required for ROS activation, or co-treatment with the ROS inhibitor, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, ZA-induced apoptosis was significantly suppressed in both osteoclast precursors and mature osteoclast-like cells. The ROS-activated mitogen-activated protein kinases pathways did not trigger cell apoptosis. However, a ROS-regulated Mcl-1 decrease simultaneously with glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β promoted cell apoptosis. These findings show that ZA induces apoptosis in osteoclast precursors and mature osteoclast-like cells by triggering ROS- and GSK-3β-mediated Mcl-1 down-regulation.

背景与目标： ：抑制破骨细胞和破骨细胞前体以减少骨吸收是治疗与破骨细胞有关的疾病（例如骨质疏松症，炎性骨质流失和恶性骨转移）的重要策略。然而，尚不完全了解破骨细胞及其前体中诱导凋亡的机制。在这里，我们使用含氮的双膦酸盐唑来膦酸（ZA）诱导人和鼠破骨细胞前体细胞以及成熟的破骨细胞样细胞中的细胞凋亡。 ZA（100μm）处理后发生了Caspase-3介导的细胞凋亡。活性氧（ROS）也以时间依赖的方式产生。敲除ROS激活所需的p47phox表达或与ROS抑制剂N-乙酰-L-半胱氨酸共同处理后，破骨细胞前体和成熟破骨细胞样细胞均显着抑制了ZA诱导的凋亡。 ROS激活的有丝分裂原激活的蛋白激酶途径没有触发细胞凋亡。但是，ROS调节的Mcl-1减少同时与糖原合酶激酶（GSK）-3β促进细胞凋亡。这些发现表明，ZA通过触发ROS和GSK-3β介导的Mcl-1下调来诱导破骨细胞前体和成熟的破骨细胞样细胞凋亡。