BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Reading disability is associated with phonological problems which might originate in auditory processing disorders. The aim of the present study was 2-fold: first, the perceptual skills of average-reading children and children with dyslexia were compared in a categorical perception task assessing the processing of a phonemic contrast based on voice onset time (VOT). The medial olivocochlear (MOC) system, an inhibitory pathway functioning under central control, was also explored. Secondly, we investigated whether audiovisual training focusing on voicing contrast could modify VOT sensitivity and, in parallel, induce MOC system plasticity. The results showed an altered voicing sensitivity in some children with dyslexia, and that the most severely impaired children presented the most severe reading difficulties. These deficits in VOT perception were sometimes accompanied by MOC function abnormalities, in particular a reduction in or even absence of the asymmetry in favour of the right ear found in average-reading children. Audiovisual training significantly improved reading and shifted the categorical perception curve of certain children with dyslexia towards the average-reading children's pattern of voicing sensitivity. Likewise, in certain children MOC functioning showed increased asymmetry in favour of the right ear following audiovisual training. The training-related improvements in reading score were greatest in children presenting the greatest changes in MOC lateralization. Taken together, these results confirm the notion that some auditory system processing mechanisms are impaired in children with dyslexia and that audiovisual training can diminish these deficits.

背景与目标： : 阅读障碍与语音问题有关，语音问题可能源于听觉处理障碍。本研究的目的是2倍: 首先，在分类感知任务中比较了普通阅读儿童和阅读障碍儿童的感知技能，该任务评估了基于语音发作时间 (VOT) 的语音对比处理。还探索了内侧橄榄耳蜗 (MOC) 系统，这是一种在中央控制下起作用的抑制途径。其次，我们研究了专注于发声对比的视听训练是否会改变VOT敏感性，并同时引起MOC系统的可塑性。结果显示，某些阅读障碍儿童的发音敏感性有所改变，而最严重的儿童则表现出最严重的阅读困难。VOT感知的这些缺陷有时伴随着MOC功能异常，尤其是在普通阅读儿童中，不对称的减少甚至没有，有利于右耳。视听训练显着改善了阅读能力，并使某些阅读障碍儿童的分类感知曲线向平均阅读儿童的发声敏感性模式转变。同样，在某些儿童中，视听训练后，MOC的功能显示出越来越不对称，有利于右耳。在MOC偏侧化变化最大的儿童中，与培训相关的阅读成绩改善最大。总之，这些结果证实了这样一种观念，即阅读障碍儿童的某些听觉系统处理机制会受到损害，而视听训练可以减少这些缺陷。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Over the past decade, object recognition work has confounded voxel response detection with potential voxel class identification. Consequently, the claim that there are areas of the brain that are necessary and sufficient for object identification cannot be resolved with existing associative methods (e.g., the general linear model) that are dominant in brain imaging methods. In order to explore this controversy we trained full brain (40,000 voxels) single TR (repetition time) classifiers on data from 10 subjects in two different recognition tasks on the most controversial classes of stimuli (house and face) and show 97.4% median out-of-sample (unseen TRs) generalization. This performance allowed us to reliably and uniquely assay the classifier's voxel diagnosticity in all individual subjects' brains. In this two-class case, there may be specific areas diagnostic for house stimuli (e.g., LO) or for face stimuli (e.g., STS); however, in contrast to the detection results common in this literature, neither the fusiform face area nor parahippocampal place area is shown to be uniquely diagnostic for faces or places, respectively.

背景与目标： : 在过去的十年中，对象识别工作使体素响应检测与潜在的体素类识别相混淆。因此，关于存在用于对象识别的必要和足够的大脑区域的主张不能用在大脑成像方法中占主导地位的现有关联方法 (例如，一般线性模型) 来解决。为了探索这一争议，我们训练了全脑 (40,000体素) 单个TR (重复时间) 分类器，对来自两个不同识别任务中最具争议的刺激类别 (房屋和面部) 的10个受试者的数据进行分类器，并显示97.4% 的样本外中位数 (看不见的TRs) 泛化。这种表现使我们能够可靠，独特地测定分类器在所有个体受试者大脑中的体素诊断能力。在这种两类情况下，可能存在针对房屋刺激 (例如LO) 或面部刺激 (例如STS) 的特定诊断区域; 但是，与该文献中常见的检测结果相反，梭形面部区域和海马旁位置区域均未分别显示出对面部或位置的唯一诊断。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: PURPOSE:To examine the relationship between phonological processing skills prior to kindergarten entry and reading skills at the end of 1st grade, in children with speech sound disorders (SSD). METHOD:The participants were 17 children with SSD and poor phonological processing skills (SSD-low PP), 16 children with SSD and good phonological processing skills (SSD-high PP), and 35 children with typical speech who were first assessed during their prekindergarten year using measures of phonological processing (i.e., speech perception, rime awareness, and onset awareness tests), speech production, receptive and expressive language, and phonological awareness skills. This assessment was repeated when the children were completing 1st grade. The Test of Word Reading Efficiency was also conducted at that time. First-grade sight word and nonword reading performance was compared across these groups. RESULTS:At the end of 1st grade, the SSD-low PP group achieved significantly lower nonword decoding scores than the SSD-high PP and typical speech groups. The 2 SSD groups demonstrated similarly good receptive language skills and similarly poor articulation skills at that time, however. No between-group differences in sight word reading were observed. All but 1 child (in the SSD-low PP group) obtained reading scores that were within normal limits. CONCLUSION:Weaknesses in phonological processing were stable for the SSD-low PP subgroup over a 2-year period.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The present study evaluated the idea that the hemisphere-specific cognitive demands of reading and writing may induce task-specific maladaptive patterns of language lateralization in children with dyslexia. Situation-specific lateralization was examined in a repeated measures design under three dichotic listening conditions: baseline, concurrent reading, and concurrent writing. Twelve males with phonological dyslexia, 8 to 12 years old, were compared to 12 age-matched and 12 younger reading-matched good readers. Lateralization patterns were examined for condition-specific relationships to pseudoword decoding, word recognition, reading comprehension, spelling, and arithmetic. The results show that dyslexia is not related to incomplete lateralization or to a failure to inhibit verbal processing in the right hemisphere during reading and writing. Reading increased the lateralization of the children with dyslexia, which had a negative relation to arithmetic; writing caused a decrease in lateralization, which was linked specifically to deficits in phonological decoding and visual word recognition. The results suggest that children with dyslexia suffer from a selective linguistic vulnerability to left-hemisphere interference from the idiosyncratic attentional and processing demands of particular school tasks. Dyslexia is a much more dynamic and environmentally sensitive disorder than previously thought.

背景与目标： : 本研究评估了这样一种观点，即阅读和写作的半球特定认知需求可能会诱发阅读障碍儿童特定任务的语言偏侧化适应不良模式。在三个二分听力条件下，以重复措施设计检查了特定于情况的侧化: 基线，并发阅读和并发写作。将12名8至12岁的语音阅读障碍男性与12名年龄匹配的和12名年龄匹配的阅读能力较好的读者进行了比较。检查了侧化模式与伪ord解码，单词识别，阅读理解，拼写和算术之间的特定条件关系。结果表明，阅读障碍与不完全偏侧化或在阅读和写作过程中未能抑制右半球的言语加工无关。阅读增加了阅读障碍儿童的偏侧化，这与算术呈负相关; 写作导致偏侧化的降低，这与语音解码和视觉单词识别的缺陷有关。结果表明，患有阅读障碍的儿童由于特殊的注意力和特定学校任务的加工要求而受到左半球干扰的选择性语言脆弱性。阅读障碍是一种比以前认为的更具活力和对环境敏感的疾病。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The plasticity region of Helicobacter pylori strain J99 is a large chromosomal segment containing 33 strain-specific open reading frames (ORFs) with characteristics of a pathogenicity island. To study the diversity of the plasticity region, 22 probes corresponding to 20 ORFs inside the plasticity region and two ORFs on its boundaries were hybridized to genomic DNA isolated from clinical strains of H. pylori from patients with gastritis or gastric adenocarcinoma. Highly variable hybridization patterns were observed. The majority of the clinical strains presented a hybridization profile similar to that of J99; thus, these ORFs are not J99 strain specific. No association was found between a particular hybridization pattern and the clinical origin of the strain. Nevertheless, two single ORFs (JHP940 and JHP947) were more likely to be found in gastric cancer strains. They may be new pathogenicity markers. An in vitro expression study of these ORFs was also performed for the J99 strain, under different conditions. Thirteen ORFs were consistently expressed, six were consistently shut off, and three were expressed differentially. Most of the constitutionally expressed genes were located on the 3' part of the plasticity region. Our results show that the plasticity region, rather than being considered a pathogenicity island per se, should be considered a genomic island, which represents a large fragment of foreign DNA integrated into the genome and not necessarily implicated in the pathogenic capacity of the strain.

背景与目标： : 幽门螺杆菌J99菌株的可塑性区域是一个大的染色体片段，包含33个具有致病性岛特征的菌株特异性开放阅读框 (orf)。为了研究可塑性区域的多样性，将对应于可塑性区域内20个orf的22个探针及其边界上的两个orf与从胃炎或胃腺癌患者的临床幽门螺杆菌菌株中分离的基因组DNA杂交。观察到高度可变的杂交模式。大多数临床菌株的杂交特征与J99相似; 因此，这些orf不是J99菌株特异性的。在特定的杂交模式与菌株的临床起源之间未发现关联。然而，在胃癌菌株中更可能发现两个单一orf (JHP940和JHP947)。它们可能是新的致病性标志物。还在不同条件下对J99菌株进行了这些orf的体外表达研究。持续表达13个orf，持续关闭6个orf，差异表达3个orf。大多数组成表达的基因位于可塑性区域的3' 部分。我们的结果表明，可塑性区域，而不是被认为是致病岛本身，应该被认为是基因组岛，它代表整合到基因组中的大量外源DNA片段，不一定与菌株的致病能力有关。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Unconscious monitoring of multimodal stimulus changes enables humans to effectively sense the external environment. Such automatic change detection is thought to be reflected in auditory and visual mismatch negativity (MMN) and mismatch negativity fields (MMFs). These are event-related potentials and magnetic fields, respectively, evoked by deviant stimuli within a sequence of standard stimuli, and both are typically studied during irrelevant visual tasks that cause the stimuli to be ignored. Due to the sensitivity of MMN/MMF to potential effects of explicit attention to vision, however, it is unclear whether multisensory co-occurring changes can purely facilitate early sensory change detection reciprocally across modalities. We adopted a tactile task involving the reading of Braille patterns as a neutral ignore condition, while measuring magnetoencephalographic responses to concurrent audiovisual stimuli that were infrequently deviated either in auditory, visual, or audiovisual dimensions; 1000-Hz standard tones were switched to 1050-Hz deviant tones and/or two-by-two standard check patterns displayed on both sides of visual fields were switched to deviant reversed patterns. The check patterns were set to be faint enough so that the reversals could be easily ignored even during Braille reading. While visual MMFs were virtually undetectable even for visual and audiovisual deviants, significant auditory MMFs were observed for auditory and audiovisual deviants, originating from bilateral supratemporal auditory areas. Notably, auditory MMFs were significantly enhanced for audiovisual deviants from about 100 ms post-stimulus, as compared with the summation responses for auditory and visual deviants or for each of the unisensory deviants recorded in separate sessions. Evidenced by high tactile task performance with unawareness of visual changes, we conclude that Braille reading can successfully suppress explicit attention and that simultaneous multisensory changes can implicitly strengthen automatic change detection from an early stage in a cross-sensory manner, at least in the vision to audition direction.

背景与目标： : 对多模态刺激变化的无意识监测使人类能够有效地感知外部环境。这种自动变化检测被认为反映在听觉和视觉失配负 (MMN) 和失配负场 (mmf) 中。这些分别是与事件相关的电势和磁场，它们是由一系列标准刺激中的异常刺激引起的，通常在不相关的视觉任务中进行研究，这些任务会导致忽略刺激。然而，由于MMN/MMF对视觉明确关注的潜在影响的敏感性，目前尚不清楚多感官共发生的变化是否可以纯粹促进跨模式的早期感觉变化检测。我们采用了一项触觉任务，其中包括将盲文模式作为中性忽略条件的读取，同时测量对同时发生的视听刺激的脑磁图反应，这些反应在听觉，视觉或视听维度上很少偏离; 将1000Hz标准音调切换到1050Hz异常音调和/或将在视野两侧显示的二乘二标准检查模式切换到异常反转模式。检查模式设置为足够微弱，以便即使在盲文阅读期间也可以轻松忽略反转。尽管即使对于视觉和视听偏差，视觉mmf也几乎无法检测到，但对于听觉和视听偏差，观察到明显的听觉mmf，这些听觉mmf来自双侧颞上听觉区域。值得注意的是，与听觉和视觉偏差或在单独的会话中记录的每个单感觉偏差的总和响应相比，刺激后约100 ms的视听偏差的听觉mmf显着增强。通过不了解视觉变化的高触觉任务性能证明，我们得出的结论是，盲文阅读可以成功地抑制显式注意力，并且同时进行的多感官变化可以从早期阶段以跨感官的方式隐式地加强自动变化检测，至少在视觉上可以从听觉方向。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The porcine adenovirus type 3 (PAd3) genome between map units 0 and 13.7 was sequenced and compared with similar regions of other adenoviruses. This region consists of the left inverted terminal repeat sequences involved in DNA packaging, the entire early region 1 (E1) and the protein IX (pIX) transcription unit. The lower strand contains the C-terminal end of IVa2 of the E2A transcriptional unit and two novel open reading frames (ORFs). The E1 transcription unit consists of ORFs for proteins homologous to the E1A, E1B-17k and E1B-55k of both human adenovirus type 5 (HAd5) and bovine adenovirus type 3 (BAd3). The predicted PAd3 pIX demonstrated homology with the N-terminal portion of the pIXs of HAd5 and BAd3. On the lower strand, immediately after the putative IVa2 ORF, there are two unique ORFs of 208 and 203 amino acid residues that showed homology with Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigens and other cellular transcription factors.

背景与目标： : 对图谱单位0和13.7之间的猪腺病毒3型 (PAd3) 基因组进行了测序，并与其他腺病毒的相似区域进行了比较。该区域由参与DNA包装的左反向末端重复序列，整个早期区域1 (E1) 和蛋白质IX (pIX) 转录单元组成。下链包含E2A转录单位IVa2的C末端和两个新的开放阅读框 (orf)。E1转录单元由与E1A，E1B-17k和E1B-55k同源的人腺病毒5型 (HAd5) 和牛腺病毒3型 (BAd3) 的蛋白质的orf组成。预测的PAd3 pIX与HAd5和bad3的pIX的N末端部分具有同源性。在下链上，紧接在推定的IVa2 ORF之后，有两个独特的208和203氨基酸残基的ORF，它们与爱泼斯坦-巴尔病毒核抗原和其他细胞转录因子具有同源性。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :There are several independent sets of findings concerning the neural basis of reading. One set demonstrates a powerful relationship between phonological processing and reading skills. Another set reveals a relationship between visual responses in the motion pathways and reading skills. It is widely assumed that these two findings are unrelated. We tested the hypothesis that phonological awareness is related to motion responsivity in children's MT+. We measured BOLD signals to drifting gratings as a function of contrast. Subjects were 35 children ages 7-12 years with a wide range of reading skills. Contrast responsivity in MT+, but not V1, was correlated with phonological awareness and to a lesser extent with two other measures of reading. No correlation was found between MT+ signals and rapid naming, age or general IQ measures. These results establish an important link between visual and phonological processing in children and suggest that MT+ responsivity is a marker for healthy reading development.

背景与目标： : 关于阅读的神经基础，有几组独立的发现。一套证明了语音处理和阅读技能之间的强大关系。另一组揭示了运动路径中的视觉反应与阅读技能之间的关系。人们普遍认为这两个发现是不相关的。我们检验了以下假设: 语音意识与儿童MT的运动响应有关。我们测量了漂移光栅的BOLD信号作为对比度的函数。对象为35名7-12岁的儿童，具有广泛的阅读技能。MT中的对比度响应度 (而非V1) 与语音意识相关，在较小程度上与其他两种阅读量度相关。在MT信号与快速命名，年龄或一般智商测量之间未发现相关性。这些结果在儿童的视觉和语音处理之间建立了重要的联系，并表明MT响应度是健康阅读发展的标志。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Words forming a continuous story were presented to 9 subjects at frequencies ranging from 5 to 30 Hz, determined individually to render comprehension easy, effortful, or practically impossible. We identified a left-hemisphere neural network sensitive to reading performance directly from the time courses of activation in the brain, derived from magnetoencephalography data. Regardless of the stimulus rate, communication within the long-range neural network occurred at a frequency of 8-13 Hz. Our coherence-based detection of interconnected nodes reproduced several brain regions that have been previously reported as active in reading tasks, based on traditional contrast estimates. Intriguingly, the face motor cortex and the cerebellum, typically associated with speech production, and the orbitofrontal cortex, linked to visual recognition and working memory, additionally emerged as densely connected components of the network. The left inferior occipitotemporal cortex, involved in early letter-string or word-specific processing, and the cerebellum turned out to be the main forward driving nodes of the network. Synchronization within a subset of nodes formed by the left occipitotemporal, the left superior temporal, and orbitofrontal cortex was increased with the subjects' effort to comprehend the text. Our results link long-range neural synchronization and directionality with cognitive performance.

背景与目标： : 形成连续故事的单词以5至30Hz的频率呈现给9个主题，分别确定以使理解变得容易，费力或几乎不可能。我们从脑磁图数据中直接从大脑激活的时间过程中确定了对阅读性能敏感的左半球神经网络。无论刺激速率如何，远程神经网络内的通信都以8-13Hz的频率发生。基于传统的对比估计，我们对互连节点的基于一致性的检测再现了几个大脑区域，这些区域以前被报道为在阅读任务中处于活动状态。有趣的是，通常与语音产生相关的面部运动皮层和小脑，以及与视觉识别和工作记忆相关的眶额皮层，还成为网络中紧密连接的组件。参与早期字母字符串或特定单词处理的左下枕颞叶皮层和小脑被证明是网络的主要向前驱动节点。随着受试者理解文本的努力，由左枕颞，左上颞和眶额叶皮层形成的节点子集内的同步增加。我们的结果将远程神经同步和方向性与认知表现联系起来。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVES:Previous studies have reported that children who use cochlear implants (CIs) tend to achieve higher reading levels than their peers with profound hearing loss who use hearing aids. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of auditory information provided by the CI on the later reading skills of children born with profound deafness. The hypothesis was that there would be a positive and predictive relationship between earlier speech perception, production, and subsequent reading comprehension. DESIGN:The speech perception and production skills at the vowel, consonant, phoneme, and word level of 72 children with prelingual, profound hearing loss were assessed after 48 mos of CI use. The children's reading skills were subsequently assessed using word and passage comprehension measures after an average of 89.5 mos of CI use. A regression analysis determined the amount of variance in reading that could be explained by the variables of perception, production, and socioeconomic status. RESULTS:Regression analysis revealed that it was possible to explain 59% of the variance of later reading skills by assessing the early speech perception and production performance. The results indicated that early speech perception and production skills of children with profound hearing loss who receive CIs predict future reading achievement skills. Furthermore, the study implies that better early speech perception and production skills result in higher reading achievement. It is speculated that the early access to sound helps to build better phonological processing skills, which is one of the likely contributors to eventual reading success.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Chop is a ubiquitously expressed mammalian gene encoding a small nuclear protein related to the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein (C/EBP) family of transcription factors. CHOP protein plays an important role in various cellular processes such as growth, differentiation and programmed cell death. CHOP expression is strongly increased in response to a large variety of stresses including perturbation of the endoplasmic reticulum function, DNA damage and nutrient deprivation. Multiple mechanisms including transcriptional and post-transcriptional controls are involved in the regulation of CHOP expression. We show here that the 5'UTR of the Chop transcript plays an important role in controlling the synthesis of CHOP protein. In particular, the 5'UTR contains a conserved uORF which encodes a 31 amino acid peptide that inhibits the expression of the downstream ORF. Mutational analysis of the 5' leader region and peptide coding sequences suggests that the peptide itself inhibits expression of the downstream ORF. Such results suggest a role for uORF in limiting ribosomal access to downstream initiation sites. With respect to the importance of CHOP protein in the regulation of cellular functions, the mechanisms that regulate its basal level are of considerable interest.

背景与目标： : Chop是一种普遍表达的哺乳动物基因，编码与CCAAT/增强子结合蛋白 (C/EBP) 转录因子家族相关的小核蛋白。CHOP蛋白在各种细胞过程中起着重要作用，例如生长，分化和程序性细胞死亡。CHOP表达强烈增加，以应对各种压力，包括内质网功能的扰动，DNA损伤和营养剥夺。包括转录和转录后控制在内的多种机制参与了CHOP表达的调节。我们在这里表明，Chop转录本的5'UTR在控制CHOP蛋白的合成中起着重要作用。特别是，5'UTR包含一个保守的uORF，该uORF编码31个氨基酸的肽，该肽抑制下游ORF的表达。对5' 前导区域和肽编码序列的突变分析表明，肽本身会抑制下游ORF的表达。这些结果表明uORF在限制核糖体进入下游起始位点上的作用。关于CHOP蛋白在调节细胞功能中的重要性，调节其基础水平的机制引起了人们的极大兴趣。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The effects of frequency altered feedback (FAF) on the reading comprehension levels and error types of normal children and children with reading disorders were examined. Participants read aloud third, sixth, and ninth grade level material in non-altered auditory feedback (NAF) and FAF conditions. Comprehension improved significantly when the reading disordered children read aloud under the FAF listening condition, regardless of the reading level. Significant differences did not occur in reading comprehension for the normal readers under NAF versus FAF conditions. Reading disordered children produced significantly more reading errors as compared to the normal reading children under the NAF listening condition. No significant difference was found in reading errors between groups when reading under FAF regardless of the reading level, suggesting that the FAF signal produced a facilitory effect on reading errors in the reading disordered children. Theoretically, the FAF signal may have activated those cortical regions responsible for the relationship that has been shown to exist between lexical encoding and decoding of verbal and written material, respectively.

背景与目标： : 检查了频率改变反馈 (FAF) 对正常儿童和阅读障碍儿童的阅读理解水平和错误类型的影响。参与者在未改变的听觉反馈 (NAF) 和FAF条件下大声朗读三年级，六年级和九年级的材料。无论阅读水平如何，阅读障碍儿童在FAF听力条件下大声朗读时，理解力都会显着提高。在NAF与FAF条件下，正常读者的阅读理解没有显着差异。与在NAF听力条件下的正常阅读儿童相比，阅读混乱的儿童产生的阅读错误明显更多。无论阅读水平如何，在FAF下阅读时，各组之间的阅读错误均无显着差异，这表明FAF信号对阅读障碍儿童的阅读错误产生了促进作用。从理论上讲，FAF信号可能已经激活了那些皮质区域，这些区域分别负责词汇编码与语言和书面材料的解码之间的关系。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Objective:The study examines the 5-year course of children with dyslexia with regard to their sex. Furthermore, the study investigates the impact of dyslexia on the performance in reading and spelling skills and school-related success. Method:A group of 995 6- to 16-year-olds were examined at the initial assessment. Part of the initial sample was then re-examined after 43 and 63 months. The diagnosis of dyslexia was based on the double discrepancy criterion using a standard deviation of 1.5. Though they had no intellectual deficits, the children showed a considerable discrepancy between their reading or writing abilities and (1) their nonverbal intelligence and (2) the mean of their grade norm. Results:Nearly 70 % of those examined had a persisting diagnosis of dyslexia over a period of 63 months. The 5-year course was not influenced by sex. Despite average intelligence, the performance in writing and spelling of children suffering from dyslexia was one standard deviation below a control group without dyslexia with average intelligence and 0.5 standard deviations below a group of children suffering from intellectual deficits. Furthermore, the school-related success of the dyslexics was significantly lower than those of children with average intelligence. Dyslexics showed similar school-related success rates to children suffering from intellectual deficits. Conclusions:Dyslexia represents a considerable developmental risk. The adverse impact of dyslexia on school-related success supports the importance of early diagnostics and intervention. It also underlines the need for reliable and general accepted diagnostic criteria. It is important to define such criteria in light of the prevalence rates.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :We studied error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) during a discrimination task in 319 unmedicated children divided into subtypes of ADHD (Not-ADHD/inattentive/combined), learning disorder (Not-LD/reading/math/reading+math), and oppositional defiant disorder. Response-locked ERPs contained a frontocentral ERN and posterior Pe. Error-related negativity and positivity exhibited larger amplitude and later latency than corresponding waves for correct responses matched on reaction time. ADHD did not affect performance on the task. The ADHD/combined sample exceeded controls in ERN amplitude, perhaps reflecting patients' adaptive monitoring efforts. Compared with controls, subjects with reading disorder and reading+math disorder performed worse on the task and had marginally more negative correct-related negativities. In contrast, Pe/Pc was smaller in children with reading+math disorder than among subjects with reading disorder and Not-LD participants; this nonspecific finding is not attributable to error processing. The results reflect anomalies in error processing in these disorders but further research is needed to address inconsistencies in the literature.

背景与目标： : 我们在一项歧视任务中研究了与错误相关的消极情绪 (ERN) 和错误阳性 (Pe)，这些儿童分为ADHD亚型 (非ADHD/注意力不集中/合并)，学习障碍 (非LD/阅读/数学) 和对立反抗障碍。反应锁定的ERPs包含前中央ERN和后Pe。与错误相关的负性和正性相比，对于在反应时间上匹配的正确响应，其振幅和延迟时间要比相应的波更大。ADHD不会影响任务的表现。ADHD/组合样本在ERN幅度上超过了对照，这可能反映了患者的适应性监测工作。与对照组相比，阅读障碍和阅读数学障碍的受试者在任务上的表现更差，并且与正确相关的负性负性略多。相比之下，阅读数学障碍儿童的Pe/Pc比阅读障碍和非LD参与者的Pe/Pc小; 这种非特异性发现不归因于错误处理。结果反映了这些疾病中错误处理的异常，但需要进一步研究以解决文献中的不一致之处。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To use eye-tracking analysis to identify the differences in approach to and efficiency of reading thin-section CT of the lungs presented tiled and stacked soft-copy displays. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Four chest radiologists read 16 thin-section CT examinations displayed in either a tiled (four images at once) or stacked (full screen cine) format. Eye-movements were recorded and analysed in terms of movement type; saccade distance (classified by the calculated range of useful peripheral vision), number of fixations, duration and direction of gaze-comparison of the areas of the images viewed. RESULTS:Cases presented in stacked format were read quicker than when presented in tiled format with a greater fixation frequency (5 fixations versus 4.5 fixations points per 100 data points; p<0.001) and a greater proportion of short saccades (97% versus 94%; p<0.005). The consistency with which the observers viewed equivalent areas of the scan images in different cases was greater when viewing in stacked format (mean kappa 0.45 versus 0.36; p<0.05) suggesting a more systematic approach to reading. CONCLUSION:Eye-tracking data demonstrates why thin-section CT examinations of the lungs are read more efficiently when displayed in a stack as opposed to a tiled format.

背景与目标：