BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Over the past decade, the old idea that the bone marrow contains endothelial cell precursors has become an area of renewed interest. While some still believe that there are no endothelial precursors in the blood, even among those who do, there is no consensus as to what they are or what they do. In this review, we describe the problems in identifying endothelial cells and conclude that expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase may be the most reliable antigenic indicator of the phenotype. The evidence for two different classes of endothelial precursors is also presented. We suggest that, though there is no single endothelial cell precursor, we may be able to use these phenotypic variations to our advantage in better understanding their biology. We also discuss how a variety of genetic, epigenetic, and methodological differences can account for the seemingly contradictory findings on the physiological relevance of bone marrow-derived precursors in normal vascular maintenance and in response to injury. Data on the impact of tumor type and location on the contribution of bone marrow-derived cells to the tumor vasculature are also presented. These data provide hope that we may ultimately be able to predict those tumors in which bone marrow-derived cells will have a significant contribution and design therapies accordingly. Finally, factors that regulate bone marrow cell recruitment to and function in the endothelium are beginning to be identified, and several of these, including stromal derived factor 1, monocyte chemoattractant factor-1, and vascular endothelial growth factor are discussed.

背景与目标： ：在过去的十年中，关于骨髓中含有内皮细胞前体的古老观念已经引起人们的广泛关注。尽管有些人仍然相信血液中没有内皮前体，即使在有血液前体的人中也没有共识，关于它们是什么或它们做什么。在这篇综述中，我们描述了鉴定内皮细胞的问题，并得出结论，内皮一氧化氮合酶的表达可能是最可靠的表型抗原指示剂。还提供了两种不同类别的内皮前体的证据。我们建议，尽管没有单个内皮细胞前体，但我们也许能够利用这些表型变异来更好地了解它们的生物学特性。我们还将讨论各种遗传，表观遗传学和方法学上的差异如何解释在正常血管维持和对损伤的反应中骨髓来源的前体的生理相关性看似矛盾的发现。还提供了有关肿瘤类型和位置对骨髓来源的细胞对肿瘤脉管系统的影响的数据。这些数据提供了希望，使我们最终能够预测那些骨髓来源的细胞将发挥重要作用的肿瘤，并据此设计治疗方法。最后，已经开始确定调节骨髓细胞向内皮募集并在内皮中起作用的因子，并讨论了其中的几种，包括基质衍生因子1，单核细胞趋化因子-1和血管内皮生长因子。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A synthetic biology workflow is composed of data repositories that provide information about genetic parts, sequence-level design tools to compose these parts into circuits, visualization tools to depict these designs, genetic design tools to select parts to create systems, and modeling and simulation tools to evaluate alternative design choices. Data standards enable the ready exchange of information within such a workflow, allowing repositories and tools to be connected from a diversity of sources. The present paper describes one such workflow that utilizes, among others, the Synthetic Biology Open Language (SBOL) to describe genetic designs, the Systems Biology Markup Language to model these designs, and SBOL Visual to visualize these designs. We describe how a standard-enabled workflow can be used to produce types of design information, including multiple repositories and software tools exchanging information using a variety of data standards. Recently, the ACS Synthetic Biology journal has recommended the use of SBOL in their publications.

背景与目标： ：合成生物学工作流程由提供有关遗传零件信息的数据存储库，将这些零件组成电路的序列级设计工具，用于描绘这些设计的可视化工具，用于选择要创建系统的零件的遗传设计工具以及建模和仿真组成评估替代设计选择的工具。数据标准可以在这样的工作流程中随时交换信息，从而可以从各种来源连接存储库和工具。本文介绍了一种这样的工作流程，该流程除其他外，利用合成生物学开放语言（SBOL）来描述基因设计，使用系统生物学标记语言对这些设计进行建模，并利用SBOL Visual来可视化这些设计。我们描述了如何使用支持标准的工作流来产生类型的设计信息，包括多个存储库和使用各种数据标准交换信息的软件工具。最近，《 ACS合成生物学》杂志在其出版物中建议使用SBOL。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Isolated tomato fruit cuticles were subjected to low dose (80Gy) γ-irradiation, as a potential methodology to prevent harvested fruit and vegetables spoilage. Both irradiated and non-irradiated samples have been morphologically and chemically characterized by scanning electron (SEM), atomic force (AFM), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron (XPS) spectroscopies. Additionally, electrochemical measurements comprising membrane potential and diffusive permeability were carried out to detect modifications in transport properties of the cuticle as the fruit primary protective membrane. It has been found that low dose γ-irradiation causes some textural changes on the surface but no significant chemical modification. Texture modification is found to be due to a partial removal of outermost (epicuticular) waxes which is accompanied by mild changes of electrochemical parameters such as the membrane fixed charge, cation transport number and salt permeability. The modification of such parameters indicates a slight reduction of the barrier properties of the cuticle upon low dose γ-irradiation.

背景与目标： ：对分离的番茄果实表皮进行低剂量（80Gy）γ射线照射，作为防止收获的水果和蔬菜变质的潜在方法。通过扫描电子（SEM），原子力（AFM），衰减全反射傅立叶变换红外光谱（ATR-FTIR）和X射线光电子（XPS）光谱学，对经过辐照和未经辐照的样品进行了形态和化学表征。另外，进行了包括膜电位和扩散渗透性的电化学测量，以检测作为水果主要保护膜的角质层的转运性质的改变。已经发现，低剂量的γ射线辐照会在表面上引起一些纹理变化，但是没有明显的化学修饰。发现结构改性是由于最外层（蜡状）蜡的部分除去，同时伴随着电化学参数的温和变化，例如膜固定电荷，阳离子迁移数和盐渗透性。修改这些参数表明在低剂量γ辐照下，表皮的阻隔性能略有降低。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Development is a dynamic process occurring at the microscopic scale. The ability to see how it unfolds in detail is invaluable not only for helping us appreciate its full complexity but also to experimentally dissect its mechanisms. The sophistication of experimental approaches and imaging technologies has increased over the past decade at an astounding pace. In this review we highlight and discuss several studies that illustrate the latest advances in the application of live-imaging to dissect plant development.

背景与目标： ：发展是发生在微观尺度上的一个动态过程。了解它如何详细展现的能力非常宝贵，不仅有助于我们了解它的全部复杂性，而且还可以通过实验来剖析其机制。在过去的十年中，实验方法和影像技术的复杂程度以惊人的速度增长。在这篇综述中，我们重点介绍并讨论了一些研究，这些研究说明了将实时成像技术应用于解剖植物发育的最新进展。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Over the past 50 years, annual killifishes arose as alternative model organisms for studies of vertebrate biology. The annual fish offers exceptional advantages for studies of genetics, genomics, developmental biology, population dynamics, ecology, biogeography, and evolution. They inhabit extremely variable freshwater environments in Africa and South America, have a short lifespan and a set of unique and fascinating developmental characteristics. Embryos survive within the dry substrate during the dry season, whereas the adult population dies. Thus, the survival of the populations is entirely dependent on the buried embryos that hatch the next rainy season. Although Old and New World species share similarities in their life cycle, they also have different adaptive responses associated with climate-related selective pressures. Therefore, contrasting different species from these areas is essential to understand unique adaptations to heterogeneous environment. A network of laboratories (United States, Czech Republic, Italy, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay) is working and collaborating on many aspects of the biology of annual fishes. Participating researchers share projects and cross-training undergraduate and graduate students. These efforts resulted in two International Symposia (2010 and 2015) that took place in Montevideo and an international book. Herein, we summarize the progress made by this global community of scientists. Developmental Dynamics 246:807-811, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

背景与目标： ：在过去的50年中，一年生的鳞鱼成为了脊椎动物生物学研究的替代模式生物。一年生鱼类为遗传学，基因组学，发育生物学，种群动态，生态学，生物地理学和进化研究提供了特殊的优势。它们居住在非洲和南美极为变化的淡水环境中，寿命短，并具有一系列独特而引人入胜的发展特征。在干旱季节，胚胎在干燥的基质内存活，而成年种群死亡。因此，种群的生存完全取决于下一个雨季孵化的埋葬胚胎。尽管旧大陆和新大陆物种在生命周期上具有相似之处，但它们也具有与气候相关的选择压力相关的不同适应性反应。因此，对比这些地区的不同物种对于了解对异质环境的独特适应性至关重要。实验室网络（美国，捷克共和国，意大利，巴西，智利和乌拉圭）正在与一年生鱼类生物学的许多方面进行合作。参与研究的人员共享项目，并对本科生和研究生进行交叉培训。这些努力导致在蒙得维的亚举行了两次国际研讨会（2010年和2015年）和一本国际书籍。在此，我们总结了这个全球科学家社区所取得的进展。 Developmental Dynamics 246：807-811，2017.©2017 Wiley Periodicals，Inc.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :We are developing biocompatible small-calibre vascular substitutes based on polymeric scaffolds that incorporate cell-matrix signals to enhance vascular cell attachment and function. Our graft scaffold comprises an outer electrostatically spun porous polyurethane layer seeded with smooth muscle cells, and a luminal polycaprolactone layer for endothelial cell attachment. Vascular cell adhesion properties of three vascular elastic fibre molecules, tropoelastin, fibrillin-1 and fibulin-5, have been defined, and adhesion fragments optimized. These fragments are being used to coat the scaffolds to enhance luminal endothelial cell attachment, and to regulate smooth muscle cell attachment and function. Tropoelastin-based cell seeding materials are also being developed. In this way, vascular cell-matrix biology is enhancing graft design.

背景与目标： ：我们正在开发基于高分子支架的生物相容性小口径血管替代品，该替代品结合了细胞基质信号以增强血管细胞的附着和功能。我们的移植支架包括一个外层静电纺丝的多孔聚氨酯层，其上植入了平滑肌细胞，以及一个内腔聚己内酯层，用于内皮细胞的附着。已经定义了三种血管弹性纤维分子（原弹性蛋白，原纤维蛋白-1和纤维蛋白-5）的血管细胞粘附特性，并优化了粘附片段。这些片段被用于包被支架以增强管腔内皮细胞的附着，并调节平滑肌细胞的附着和功能。基于弹性蛋白的细胞接种材料也在开发中。这样，血管细胞基质生物学正在增强移植物设计。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Mutagen-induced chromatid aberrations are not randomly distributed along the metaphase chromosomes. In the field bean (Vicia faba), defined late-replicating and transcriptionally inactive heterochromatic regions are preferentially involved. After exposure to the alkylating agent N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) (10(-3) M, 1 hour), 70% of all aberrations are clustered within 6 segments containing tandemly repeated FokI elements of 59 bp, which comprise approximately 10% of the genome. Using immuno-slot-blot analyses, we have studied the frequency of O6-methylguanine (O6-MeG), a mutagenic lesion important for aberration induction, in total genomic DNA as well as in FokI sequences of the field bean after exposure to MNU. In either case, similar numbers of adducts per nucleotide were found immediately after treatment as well as after 18 hours of recovery, when most adducts were removed and significant amounts of chromatid aberrations were detectable. Peculiarities of long FokI element arrays (e.g., formation of specific tertiary structures), resulting in error-prone recombination repair, rather than preferential formation or delayed repair of O6-MeG are apparently responsible for aberration clustering in these hot spot regions.

背景与目标： 诱变剂引起的染色单体畸变不是沿着中期染色体随机分布的。在田豆（Vicia faba）中，优先涉及定义的后期复制和无转录活性的异色区域。暴露于烷基化剂N-甲基-N-亚硝基脲（MNU）（10（-3）M，1小时）后，所有像差的70％聚集在6个片段中，这些片段包含串联重复的59 bp的FokI元素，约占59 bp。基因组的10％。使用免疫印迹分析，我们研究了O6-甲基鸟嘌呤（O6-MeG）的频率，这是一种对畸变诱导很重要的诱变病变，它暴露于MNU后总基因组DNA以及田豆的FokI序列中。在这两种情况下，当去除大多数加合物并检测到大量的染色单体畸变时，在治疗后以及恢复18小时后，发现每个核苷酸的加合物数量相似。长FokI元素阵列的特殊性（例如，形成特定的三级结构）导致容易出错的重组修复，而不是O6-MeG的优先形成或延迟修复，显然是这些热点区域中的像差聚类的原因。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Most high-yielding rice cultivars developed for irrigated conditions, including the widely grown lowland variety IR64, are highly susceptible to drought stress. This limits their adoption in rainfed rice environments where there is a risk of water shortage during the growing season. Mapping studies using lowland-by-upland rice populations have provided limited information about the genetic basis of variation in yield under drought. One approach to simultaneously improve and understand rice drought tolerance is to generate backcross populations, select superior lines in managed stress environments, and then evaluate which features of the selected lines differ from the recurrent parent. This approach was been taken with IR64, using a range of tolerant and susceptible cultivars as donor parents. Yields of the selected lines measured across 13 widely contracting water environments were generally greater than IR64, but genotype-by-environment effects were large. Traits expected to vary between IR64 and selected lines are plant height, because many donors were not semi-dwarf types, and maturity, because selection in a terminal stress environment is expected to favour earliness. In these experiments it was found that some lines that performed better under upland drought were indeed taller than IR64, but that shorter lines with good yield under drought could also be identified. In trials where drought stress developed in previously flooded (lowland) fields, height was not associated with performance. There was little change in maturity with selection. Other notable differences between IR64 and the selected backcross lines were in their responses to applied ABA and ethylene in greenhouse experiments at the vegetative stage and in leaf rolling observed under chronic upland stress in the field. These observations are consistent with the hypothesis that adaptive responses to drought can effectively allow for improved performance across a broad range of water environments. The results indicate that the yield of IR64 under drought can be significantly improved by backcrossing with selection under stress. In target environments where drought is infrequent but significant in certain years, improved IR64 with greater drought tolerance would be a valuable option for farmers.

背景与目标： ：大多数为灌溉条件开发的高产水稻品种，包括广泛种植的低地品种IR64，极易受到干旱胁迫的影响。这限制了它们在雨养水稻环境中的采用，在雨育水稻环境中，生长期存在缺水的风险。使用低陆旱稻群体进行的作图研究提供了有关干旱条件下产量变化的遗传基础的有限信息。同时改善和了解水稻耐旱性的一种方法是产生回交群体，在有控制的胁迫环境中选择优良品系，然后评估所选品系的哪些特征与轮回亲本不同。 IR64采用了这种方法，使用了一系列耐性和易感品种作为供体亲本。在13个广泛收缩的水环境中测得的选定品系的产量通常高于IR64，但基因型对环境的影响很大。预期在IR64和选定品系之间变化的性状是植物高度，因为许多供体不是半矮型，而成熟则是因为在终极胁迫环境中选择有利于早熟。在这些实验中，发现一些在陆地干旱条件下表现更好的品系确实比IR64高，但也可以鉴定出在干旱条件下具有良好产量的较短品系。在先前淹没的（低地）田地中出现干旱胁迫的试验中，身高与体能没有关系。选择的成熟度几乎没有变化。 IR64和所选回交系之间的其他显着差异在于，在植物生长阶段的温室试验以及田间在长期高地胁迫下观察到的卷叶过程中，它们对施用的ABA和乙烯的反应。这些观察结果与以下假设相吻合：对干旱的适应性反应可以有效地在广泛的水环境中改善性能。结果表明，干旱条件下回交与选育可以显着提高干旱条件下IR64的产量。在很少发生干旱但在某些年份发生严重干旱的目标环境中，提高IR64耐旱性将是农民的一个宝贵选择。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Currently, there is little data available regarding the role of gender-specific gene expression on synonymous codon usage (translational selection) in most organisms, and particularly plants. Using gender-specific EST libraries (with > 4000 ESTs) from Zea mays and Triticum aestivum, we assessed whether gender-specific gene expression per se and gender-specific gene expression level are associated with selection on codon usage. RESULTS:We found clear evidence of a greater bias in codon usage for genes expressed in female than in male organs and gametes, based on the variation in GC content at third codon positions and the frequency of species-preferred codons. This finding holds true for both highly and for lowly expressed genes. In addition, we found that highly expressed genes have greater codon bias than lowly expressed genes for both female- and male-specific genes. Moreover, in both species, genes with female-specific expression show a greater usage of species-specific preferred codons for each of the 18 amino acids having synonymous codons. A supplemental analysis of Brassica napus suggests that bias in codon usage could also be higher in genes expressed in male gametophytic tissues than in heterogeneous (flower) tissues. CONCLUSION:This study reports gender-specific bias in codon usage in plants. The findings reported here, based on the analysis of 1,497,876 codons, are not caused either by differences in the biological functions of the genes or by differences in protein lengths, nor are they likely attributable to mutational bias. The data are best explained by gender-specific translational selection. Plausible explanations for these findings and the relevance to these and other organisms are discussed.

背景与目标： 背景：目前，关于性别特异性基因表达对大多数生物体，尤其是植物中同义密码子使用（翻译选择）的作用的数据很少。使用来自玉米和普通小麦的性别特异性EST文库（> 4000 EST），我们评估了性别特异性基因表达本身和性别特异性基因表达水平是否与密码子选择有关。
结果：基于第三个密码子位置GC含量的变化和物种偏爱的密码子频率，我们发现明显证据表明，女性表达基因的密码子使用偏向于男性器官和配子。这一发现对于高表达和低表达的基因都适用。此外，我们发现对于女性和男性特异性基因，高表达基因比低表达基因具有更大的密码子偏好性。此外，在两种物种中，具有雌性特异性表达的基因对于具有同义密码子的18个氨基酸中的每一个都显示出物种特异性优选密码子的更多使用。甘蓝型油菜的补充分析表明，雄配子体组织中表达的基因中密码子使用的偏倚也可能比异质（花）组织中的高。
结论：本研究报告了植物密码子使用中的性别特异性偏见。根据对1,497,876个密码子的分析，此处报告的发现既不是由于基因生物学功能的差异或蛋白质长度的差异引起的，也不是由突变偏倚引起的。可以通过针对性别的翻译选择来最好地解释这些数据。讨论了这些发现的合理解释以及与这些生物和其他生物的相关性。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The evolution of oxygen transport hemoglobins occurred on at least two independent occasions. The earliest event led to myoglobin and red blood cell hemoglobin in animals. In plants, oxygen transport "leghemoglobins" evolved much more recently. In both events, pentacoordinate heme sites capable of inert oxygen transfer evolved from hexacoordinate hemoglobins that have unrelated functions. High sequence homology between hexacoordinate and pentacoordinate hemoglobins in plants has poised them for potential structural analysis leading to a molecular understanding of this important evolutionary event. However, the lack of a plant hexacoordinate hemoglobin structure in the exogenously ligand-bound form has prevented such comparison. Here we report the crystal structure of the cyanide-bound hexacoordinate hemoglobin from barley. This presents the first opportunity to examine conformational changes in plant hexacoordinate hemoglobins upon exogenous ligand binding, and reveals structural mechanisms for stabilizing the high-energy pentacoordinate heme conformation critical to the evolution of reversible oxygen binding hemoglobins.

背景与目标： ：氧气运输血红蛋白的演变至少在两次独立的情况下发生。最早的事件导致动物中的肌红蛋白和红细胞血红蛋白。在植物中，氧运输“豆球蛋白”的进化要近得多。在这两种情况下，能够进行惰性氧转移的五配位血红素位点都从功能不相关的六配位血红蛋白演变而来。植物中六配位和五配位血红蛋白之间的高序列同源性已使它们准备用于潜在的结构分析，从而导致对该重要进化事件的分子理解。然而，缺乏外源性配体结合形式的植物六配位血红蛋白结构阻碍了这种比较。在这里，我们报告了大麦与氰化物结合的六配位血红蛋白的晶体结构。这为检查植物六配体血红蛋白在外源配体结合后的构象变化提供了第一个机会，并揭示了稳定高能五配体血红素构象的结构机理，该构象变化对可逆氧结合血红蛋白的演化至关重要。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Contents 1314 I. 1315 II. 1316 III. 1322 IV. 1323 V. 1325 VI. 1326 VII. 1326 VIII. 1327 1328 References 1328 SUMMARY: Invasions of alien plants are typically studied as invasions of individual species, yet interactions between plants and symbiotic fungi (mutualists and potential pathogens) affect plant survival, physiological traits, and reproduction and hence invasion success. Studies show that plant-fungal associations are frequently key drivers of plant invasion success and impact, but clear conceptual frameworks and integration across studies are needed to move beyond a series of case studies towards a more predictive understanding. Here, we consider linked plant-fungal invasions from the perspective of plant and fungal origin, simplified to the least complex representations or 'motifs'. By characterizing these interaction motifs, parallels in invasion processes between pathogen and mutualist fungi become clear, although the outcomes are often opposite in effect. These interaction motifs provide hypotheses for fungal-driven dynamics behind observed plant invasion trajectories. In some situations, the effects of plant-fungal interactions are inconsistent or negligible. Variability in when and where different interaction motifs matter may be driven by specificity in the plant-fungal interaction, the size of the effect of the symbiosis (negative to positive) on plants and the dependence (obligate to facultative) of the plant-fungal interaction. Linked plant-fungal invasions can transform communities and ecosystem function, with potential for persistent legacies preventing ecosystem restoration.

背景与目标： ：目录1314 I.1315 II。 1316三。 1322 IV。 1323 V.1325 VI。 1326七。 1326 VIII。 1327 1328参考文献1328概述：外来植物的入侵通常作为对单个物种的入侵进行研究，但是植物与共生真菌（互惠生和潜在病原体）之间的相互作用会影响植物的存活，生理特性以及繁殖，从而成功入侵。研究表明，植物-真菌协会通常是植物入侵成功和影响的关键驱动力，但是需要有清晰的概念框架和跨研究的整合，才能超越一系列案例研究，从而获得更具预测性的理解。在这里，我们从植物和真菌起源的角度考虑相关的植物-真菌入侵，将其简化为最不复杂的表示形式或“基序”。通过表征这些相互作用的基序，病原体和共生真菌之间的侵袭过程中的相似之处就变得很清楚，尽管结果在效果上往往是相反的。这些相互作用的主题为观察到的植物入侵轨迹背后的真菌驱动动力学提供了假设。在某些情况下，植物-真菌相互作用的影响是不一致的或可忽略的。植物-真菌相互作用的特异性，共生对植物的影响（负向阳性）的大小以及植物-真菌相互作用的依赖性（专性）决定了何时和何地不同的相互作用基元重要的变异性。 。关联的植物-真菌入侵可以改变社区和生态系统的功能，并具有持续存在的遗产可能阻止生态系统的恢复。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Bryonia, a well-known medicinal plant used mainly in homeopathy as an antiinflammatory, has never been considered an adaptogen. However, much evidence has been accumulated during the last decade indicating that Bryonia roots have adaptogenic properties. This review summarizes the reports (published mainly in Russian) on the chemical composition, the pharmacological and biochemical investigations of the active principles of Bryonia alba roots. It also summarizes reports on clinical trials of a Bryonia extract (tablets prepared from a standardized powder of Bryonia alba root, called "Loshtak" in Armenia) that indicates it is an adaptogenic and restorative drug with immunomodulatory, stress-protective and tonic properties that increase the nonspecific resistance of an organism toward harmful stimuli. The major active components of the Bryonia extract are cucurbitacin glucosides and trihydroxyoctadecadienoic acids (THODA). The biological activities of these compounds are associated with biosynthesis of eicosanoids and corticosteroids, which are important mediators in the immune, endocrine and nervous systems. Clinical trials show that the Bryonia extract was effective in treating workers at the Chernobyl Nuclear reactor who suffered from vegetovessel dystonia and other accompanying illnesses as a result of that facility's well-known accident. It was also effective in preventing radiation-induced disorders and cytostatic side effects in cancer therapy. The use of Bryonia extract in healthy athletes increases their endurance, working capacity and heart rate restoration after physical loading. No side effects caused by Bryonia extract intake were recorded during these trials.

背景与目标： ：Bryonia是一种著名的药用植物，主要​​用于顺势疗法作为一种抗炎药，从未被认为是一种适应原。然而，在过去的十年中，已经积累了许多证据，表明秋葵根具有适应原性的特性。这篇综述总结了有关白花菜根的活性成分的化学成分，药理和生化研究的报告（主要以俄语出版）。它还总结了有关野菜提取物（由亚美尼亚白菜根的标准化粉末制得的片剂，在亚美尼亚称为“ Loshtak”的片剂）的临床试验报告，表明其是具有适应性和恢复性的药物，具有增强免疫调节，保护压力和滋补特性。生物对有害刺激物的非特异性抗性。 Bryonia提取物的主要活性成分是葫芦素糖苷和三羟基十八碳二烯酸（THODA）。这些化合物的生物活性与类花生酸和皮质类固醇的生物合成有关，类花生酸和皮质类固醇是免疫，内分泌和神经系统的重要介体。临床试验表明，Bryonia提取物可有效治疗切尔诺贝利核反应堆的工人，该工人因该设施的著名事故而遭受植物血管张力障碍和其他伴随疾病的折磨。在癌症治疗中，它还可以有效防止辐射引起的疾病和细胞抑制性副作用。在健康的运动员中使用Bryonia提取物可增加身体负荷后的耐力，工作能力和心率恢复。在这些试验中，未记录到因摄入菜子提取物而引起的副作用。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Arf and Rab proteins, members of small GTPases superfamily, localize to specific subcellular compartments and regulate intracellular trafficking. To carry out their cellular functions, Arfs/Rabs interact with numerous and structurally diverse effector proteins. Over the years, a number of Arf/Rab:effector complexes have been crystallized and their structures reveal shared binding modes including α-helical packing, β-β complementation, and heterotetrameric assemblies. We review available structural information and provide a framework for in-depth analysis of complexes. The unifying features that we identify are organized into a classification scheme for different modes of Arf/Rab:effector interactions, which includes "all-α-helical," "mixed α-helical," "β-β zipping," and "bivalent" modes of binding. Additionally, we highlight structural determinants that are the basis of effector specificity. We conclude by expanding on functional implications that are emerging from available structural information under our proposed classification scheme.

背景与目标： ：Arf和Rab蛋白是小GTPases超家族的成员，位于特定的亚细胞区室并调节细胞内运输。为了执行其细胞功能，Alfs / Rabs与众多结构上不同的效应蛋白相互作用。多年来，许多Arf / Rab：效应复合物已经结晶，其结构揭示了共享的结合模式，包括α-螺旋堆积，β-β互补和异四聚体组装。我们审查可用的结构信息，并提供用于复杂物深入分析的框架。我们确定的统一特征被组织为针对Arf / Rab：effector相互作用的不同模式的分类方案，其中包括“全α螺旋”，“混合α螺旋”，“β-β拉链”和“二价” ”的绑定方式。此外，我们重点介绍了结构决定子，这些决定子是效应子特异性的基础。最后，我们扩展了在我们提议的分类方案下从可用结构信息中产生的功能含义。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :According to the World Bank and FAO, the population grows worldwide and the poorest countries are expected to double their population within the next decades, reaching approximately 7.2 billion in 2015. Moreover, the food and financial crisis together with the global economic recession pushed the number of hungry and undernourished people in the world to unprecedented levels. The substitution of animal proteins by plant proteins in food and feed is a general trend because of the lower cost and better production efficiency. Pathogens and pests can reduce the crop yields up to 30%. In some places, the losses can reach 80% due to climate conditions, proliferation of insects, and fungal diseases. All together, the harvest and postharvest losses vary from 5% to 20% and depending on the commodity can be as high as 50%. Plants have a complex chemical armory for defense composed of low and high molecular mass compounds that can act over a variety of pests and pathogens, from micro-organisms to phytophagous insects or grazing animals. Among them, plant fungitoxic and insecticidal polypeptides represent promising alternatives to increase the supply of plant-derived proteins and tackle the hunger in a global scale.

背景与目标： ：根据世界银行和粮农组织的统计，全球人口在增长，最贫穷的国家有望在未来几十年内将其人口增加一倍，到2015年将达到约72亿。此外，粮食和金融危机以及全球经济衰退推动了全球人口的增长。世界上饥饿和营养不良的人数达到前所未有的水平。在食品和饲料中用植物蛋白替代动物蛋白是一个普遍的趋势，因为它具有较低的成本和更高的生产效率。病原体和害虫可以使农作物减产高达30％。在某些地方，由于气候条件，昆虫繁殖和真菌疾病，损失可能达到80％。总体而言，收获和收获后的损失从5％到20％不等，并且取决于商品，损失可能高达50％。植物具有由低和高分子量化合物组成的复杂化学防御工事，这些化合物可以作用于从微生物到植物吞噬性昆虫或放牧动物的各种害虫和病原体。其中，植物真菌毒性和杀虫多肽代表了在全球范围内增加植物来源蛋白质的供应并解决饥饿问题的有希望的替代品。