BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Issues concerning the allocation of research funds in the drug and alcohol field have been widely debated. A consensus workshop involving senior researchers and policy makers was convened to examine the appropriateness of current drug and alcohol research activities in Australia. The workshop identified several major barriers restricting research developments including lack of monitoring of research efforts, limited community support, inappropriate allocations of research funds which contributed to a low level of intervention studies, the lack of application of research findings by practitioners and ethical constraints in studies involving Aboriginal populations and in multi-centre trials. Agreement was reached on 16 recommendations which could increase the amount of high quality research in Australia directed at reducing the harm associated with alcohol, tobacco and other drug use. Strategies which funding bodies could use to encourage intervention studies were identified. A proposal for the Australian Medical and Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs to establish a Researchers' Group to encourage implementation of the recommendations was also endorsed by workshop participants.

背景与目标： ：关于毒品和酒精领域研究经费分配的问题已经引起广泛的争论。召集了由高级研究人员和政策制定者参加的共识研讨会，以审查澳大利亚目前进行的毒品和酒精研究活动的适当性。讲习班确定了制约研究发展的几个主要障碍，包括缺乏对研究成果的监测，有限的社区支持，研究资金分配不当，这导致干预研究水平较低，从业者缺乏研究结果的应用以及研究中的伦理约束。涉及原住民和多中心试验。已就16项建议达成协议，这些建议可能会增加澳大利亚针对减少与酒精，烟草和其他毒品使用有关的危害的高质量研究的数量。确定了供资机构可以用来鼓励干预研究的策略。讲习班参加者还认可了澳大利亚医学和酒精和其他药物专业协会成立研究人员小组的建议，以鼓励执行这些建议。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Globalization affects all facets of human life, including health and well being. The HIV/AIDS epidemic has highlighted the global nature of human health and welfare and globalization has given rise to a trend toward finding common solutions to global health challenges. Numerous international funds have been set up in recent times to address global health challenges such as HIV. However, despite increasingly large amounts of funding for health initiatives being made available to poorer regions of the world, HIV infection rates and prevalence continue to increase world wide. As a result, the AIDS epidemic is expanding and intensifying globally. Worst affected are undoubtedly the poorer regions of the world as combinations of poverty, disease, famine, political and economic instability and weak health infrastructure exacerbate the severe and far-reaching impacts of the epidemic. One of the major reasons for the apparent ineffectiveness of global interventions is historical weaknesses in the health systems of underdeveloped countries, which contribute to bottlenecks in the distribution and utilisation of funds. Strengthening these health systems, although a vital component in addressing the global epidemic, must however be accompanied by mitigation of other determinants as well. These are intrinsically complex and include social and environmental factors, sexual behaviour, issues of human rights and biological factors, all of which contribute to HIV transmission, progression and mortality. An equally important factor is ensuring an equitable balance between prevention and treatment programmes in order to holistically address the challenges presented by the epidemic.

背景与目标： 全球化影响着人类生活的方方面面，包括健康和福祉。艾滋病毒/艾滋病的流行突出表明了人类健康和福利的全球性，全球化引起了为全球卫生挑战寻找共同解决方案的趋势。最近已经建立了许多国际基金，以应对艾滋病等全球卫生挑战。然而，尽管世界上较贫困的地区获得了越来越多的卫生计划资金，但全世界的艾滋病毒感染率和流行率仍在继续增加。结果，艾滋病的流行在全球范围内正在扩大和加剧。毫无疑问，受害最严重的是世界上的贫困地区，因为贫困，疾病，饥荒，政治和经济不稳定以及卫生基础设施薄弱的综合因素加剧了这一流行病的严重和深远影响。全球干预措施明显无效的主要原因之一是欠发达国家卫生系统的历史薄弱环节，这造成资金分配和使用的瓶颈。加强这些卫生系统虽然是应对全球流行病的重要组成部分，但同时还必须减轻其他决定因素。这些从本质上讲是复杂的，包括社会和环境因素，性行为，人权问题和生物因素，所有这些因素都导致艾滋病毒的传播，发展和死亡。同样重要的因素是确保预防和治疗方案之间的公平平衡，以便从整体上应对这一流行病带来的挑战。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:This study assessed whether dramatic funding reductions to the Florida Tobacco Control Program (FTCP) influenced trends in recall of the Florida "truth" anti-smoking media campaign, anti-industry attitudes and non-smoking intentions among Florida teens. METHODS:We used an interrupted time series technique to test for differences in the rates of change in Florida "truth" recall, anti-industry beliefs and non-smoking intentions before and after the FTCP budget cuts using the Florida Anti-tobacco Media Evaluation (FAME) survey, a repeated cross-sectional telephone survey of Florida teens. RESULTS:Recall of the Florida "truth" anti-smoking campaign, anti-industry attitudes, and non-smoking intentions increased dramatically between April 1998 and May 1999. Florida "truth" recall declined after FTCP budget cuts in June 1999. Anti-industry beliefs and non-smoking intentions plateaued or began to decline after the budget cuts. The launch of the national "truth" campaign in February 2000 may have offset otherwise deleterious effects of the budget cuts on anti-industry beliefs, but not smoking intentions. CONCLUSION:Reductions in tobacco control funding have immediate effects on programme exposure and cognitive precursors to smoking initiation. There is a critical need to maintain and enhance funding for state tobacco control programmes to continue nationwide progress in preventing youth from initiating cigarette smoking.

背景与目标： 目的：本研究评估了佛罗里达烟草控制计划（FTCP）的巨额资金减少是否影响了佛罗里达青少年“真相”反吸烟媒体运动，反行业态度和非吸烟意图的召回趋势。
方法：我们使用中断时间序列技术来测试佛罗里达州“真相”召回率变化率，反行业信念和非吸烟意图变化率的差异，方法是使用佛罗里达州反烟草媒体评估（F佛罗里达州）削减FTCP预算之前和之后（ FAME）调查，这是对佛罗里达州青少年的重复横断面电话调查。
结果：在1998年4月至1999年5月间，对佛罗里达“真相”反吸烟运动，反行业态度和非吸烟意图的召回急剧增加。在1999年6月FTCP预算削减后，佛罗里达“真相”召回率有所下降。预算削减后，信仰和非吸烟意愿趋于稳定或开始下降。 2000年2月发起的全国“真相”运动可能抵消了削减预算对反行业信念的有害影响，但对吸烟意图却没有。
结论：减少烟草控制资金对计划暴露和开始吸烟的认知先兆有直接影响。迫切需要保持和增加对国家烟草控制计划的资金，以继续在全国范围内防止青年人开始吸烟。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has become a popular tool for biodiversity conservation, based on the principle that biodiversity must pay for itself by generating economic benefits, particularly for local people. There are many examples of projects that produce revenues for local communities and improve local attitudes towards conservation, but the contribution of CBET to conservation and local economic development is limited by factors such as the small areas and few people involved, limited earnings, weak linkages between biodiversity gains and commercial success, and the competitive and specialized nature of the tourism industry. Many CBET projects cited as success stories actually involve little change in existing local land and resource-use practices, provide only a modest supplement to local livelihoods, and remain dependent on external support for long periods, if not indefinitely. Investment in CBET might be justified in cases where such small changes and benefits can yield significant conservation and social benefits, although it must still be recognized as requiring a long term funding commitment. Here, I aim to identify conditions under which CBET is, and is not, likely to be effective, efficient and sustainable compared with alternative approaches for conserving biodiversity. I also highlight the need for better data and more rigorous analysis of both conservation and economic impacts.

背景与目标： ：基于社区的生态旅游（CBET）已成为生物多样性保护的一种流行工具，其依据是生物多样性必须通过创造经济利益，特别是对当地人民的经济利益来回报自己的原则。有许多项目为当地社区创造收入并改善了当地对保护的态度的例子，但是CBET对保护和当地经济发展的贡献受到以下因素的限制：面积小，涉及的人少，收益有限，相互之间的联系薄弱生物多样性的获得和商业上的成功，以及旅游业的竞争性和专业性。许多被称为成功案例的CBET项目实际上几乎没有改变当地现有的土地和资源使用方式，仅对当地的生计提供了适度的补充，并且即使不是无限期地，也长期依赖外部支持。在这种微小的变化和收益可以带来显着的保护和社会效益的情况下，对CBET进行投资可能是合理的，尽管仍必须承认，这需要长期的资金投入。在这里，我的目的是确定与保护生物多样性的替代方法相比，CBET可能是有效，高效和可持续的条件。我还强调需要对保护和经济影响同时提供更好的数据和更严格的分析。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The structural funds are used to promote economic development as part of European Union Cohesion Policy. Previously the main beneficiary countries were in southern Europe and on the periphery. For 2007-13, the funds are being increased, and directed towards the EU's new Member States. The Commission has been working with national health ministries, and regions, to develop expertise in applications and implementation. Fields suitable in the next phase, from 2014 onwards, include social and health care for elderly people and public health research systems. Public health practitioners and academics have relevant skills and advice to provide.

背景与目标： ：作为欧盟凝聚政策的一部分，结构性资金用于促进经济发展。以前，主要的受益国是在南欧和周边地区。在2007-13年度，资金正在增加，并直接用于欧盟的新成员国。该委员会一直在与国家卫生部委和地区合作，以开发应用和实施方面的专业知识。从2014年开始，下一阶段的适用领域包括老年人的社会和医疗保健以及公共卫生研究系统。公共卫生从业人员和学者具有相关的技能和建议。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:Many countries from the European region, which moved from a government financed and provided health system to social health insurance, would have had the risk of moving away from universal health coverage if they had followed a "traditional" approach. The Eastern European high-income countries studied in this paper managed to avoid this potential pitfall by using state budget revenues to explicitly pay health insurance contributions on behalf of certain (vulnerable) population groups who have difficulties to pay these contributions themselves. The institutional design aspects of their government revenue transfer arrangements are analysed, as well as their impact on universal health coverage progress. METHODS:This regional study is based on literature review and review of databases for the performance assessment. The analytical framework focuses on the following institutional design features: rules on eligibility for contribution exemption, financing and pooling arrangements, and purchasing arrangements and benefit package design. RESULTS:More commonalities than differences can be identified across countries: a broad range of groups eligible for exemption from payment of health insurance contributions, full state contributions on behalf of the exempted groups, mostly mandatory participation, integrated pools for both the exempted and contributors, and relatively comprehensive benefit packages. In terms of performance, all countries have high total population coverage rates, but there are still challenges regarding financial protection and access to and utilization of health care services, especially for low income people. CONCLUSION:Overall, government revenue transfer arrangements to exempt vulnerable groups from contributions are one option to progress towards universal health coverage.

背景与目标： 简介：许多来自欧洲地区的国家，如果从“政府”资助的医疗体系转移到社会医疗保险，则如果遵循“传统”方法，就有可能脱离全民医保。本文研究的东欧高收入国家通过使用国家预算收入来代表某些（弱势）人口群体明确支付健康保险费，从而避免了这种潜在的陷阱，这些人群本身难以支付这些费用。分析了政府收入转移安排的制度设计方面，以及它们对全民医疗覆盖进度的影响。
方法：本区域研究基于文献综述和绩效评估数据库的综述。分析框架着重于以下机构设计特征：关于免除缴费资格的规则，筹资和集中安排，购买安排和福利包设计。
结果：在各个国家/地区之间发现的共性比差异更大：有资格豁免医疗保险缴费的各种团体，代表被豁免团体的全额国家缴费，主要是强制性参与，被豁免者和贡献者的综合资金池，以及相对全面的福利计划。在绩效方面，所有国家的总人口覆盖率都很高，但是在财务保护以及医疗服务的获取和利用方面仍然存在挑战，特别是对于低收入人群而言。
结论：总体而言，政府的税收转移安排使弱势群体免于缴费是实现全民健康覆盖的一种选择。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:We analyzed programs managed by the ten biggest social health insurance companies in Germany that aim at early detection, prevention, and promotion of health in depression. METHODS:We conducted interviews with the responsible managers and studied relevant web sites. RESULTS:The content of these programs ranges from internet-based offers to relaxation techniques. There is very little information publicly available on the results of these programs; the same holds true for the number of participants, efficiency, and cooperation with physicians. CONCLUSION:There is a strong need to investigate results and efficiency of the programs.

背景与目标： 目的：我们分析了德国十家最大的社会健康保险公司管理的计划，这些计划旨在及早发现，预防和促进抑郁症患者的健康。
方法：我们对负责的经理进行了采访，并研究了相关的网站。
结果：这些程序的内容范围从基于Internet的报价到放松技术。关于这些计划结果的公开信息很少。参与者人数，效率和与医生的合作也是如此。
结论：迫切需要调查程序的结果和效率。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This article explores policy alternatives that can bring Social Security (OASDI) into long-term balance. The alternatives conform to long-standing principles that benefits are: an earned right, related to pay and time in the workforce, not based primarily on need; and related to annual changes in the cost of living. Furthermore, the OASDI is self-financed, employers and employees contribute equally, and participation is compulsory. In order to maintain public support, the policy alternatives also spread the "pain" of change between workers and beneficiaries, maintain income replacement rates for low-income earners, and retain a positive correlation between taxes and benefits. The article discusses varying four policy parameters to balance the funds: the primary insurance amount, the cost-of-living adjustment; the normal retirement age; and the payroll tax rate. Only by changing several policy parameters can all the objectives be satisfied. Discussed in detail are three scenarios, each of which includes a COLA cut and a pay-as-you-go FICA tax rate.

背景与目标： ：本文探讨了可以使社会保障（OASDI）长期保持平衡的政策选择。这些备选方案符合长期的原则，即收益：与劳动者的工资和时间有关的获利权利，而不是主要基于需求；并与生活成本的年度变化有关。此外，OASDI是自负盈亏的，雇主和雇员平等出资，并且参与是强制性的。为了保持公众的支持，其他政策选择还使工人和受益人之间的变化“痛苦”蔓延，维持低收入者的收入替代率，并在税收和福利之间保持正相关。本文讨论了用于平衡资金的四个保单参数：基本保险金额，生活成本调整；正常退休年龄；和工资税率。只有改变几个政策参数，才能实现所有目标。详细讨论了三种方案，每种方案都包括削减COLA和按需付款的FICA税率。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Improvements in resource allocation can increase the benefits of federally funded sexually transmitted disease (STD) prevention activities. The purpose of this study was to illustrate how different strategies for allocating federal funds to subnational districts for syphilis prevention might affect the incidence of syphilis at the national level. METHODS:We modeled syphilis rates by district and year using an equation based on a previous analysis of state-level syphilis elimination funding and syphilis case rates from 1998 to 2005 in the United States. We used the model to illustrate the potential impact of 3 different strategies for allocating supplemental federal funds to subnational districts to support syphilis prevention activities a hypothetical country with 18 subnational districts. The 3 strategies were based on each district's (1) population size, (2) syphilis incidence rate, or (3) number of syphilis cases. The hypothetical country was similar to the United States in overall population and syphilis burden. RESULTS:Without the supplemental federal funds, there would be an estimated 48,600 incident infections annually in the hypothetical country. With the supplemental federal funds, the annual number of infections would be reduced to 27,800 with a population-based allocation of funding to each district, 26,700 with a rate-based allocation, and 24,400 with a case-based allocation of funding. CONCLUSIONS:Allocating federal STD prevention funds to districts based on burden of disease can be an efficient strategy, although this efficiency may be reduced or eliminated when high-burden districts have less ability to provide adequate STD prevention services than lower-burden districts.

背景与目标： 背景：资源分配的改善可以增加联邦资助的性传播疾病（STD）预防活动的收益。这项研究的目的是说明用于预防梅毒的地方政府分配联邦资金的不同策略如何在国家一级影响梅毒的发病率。
方法：我们根据以前对美国1998年至2005年州级梅毒消除资金和梅毒病例率的分析得出的方程，按地区和年份对梅毒发生率进行建模。我们使用该模型说明了将三种补充策略分配给次国家地区以支持梅毒预防活动的三种不同策略的潜在影响，这是一个有18个次国家地区的假设国家。这三种策略基于每个地区的（1）人口规模，（2）梅毒发生率或（3）梅毒病例数。假设的国家在总体人口和梅毒负担方面与美国相似。
结果：在没有补充联邦资金的情况下，假设国家每年估计有48,600起事件感染。利用联邦政府的补充资金，每年的感染人数将减少到27,800，其中每个地区按人群分配资金，按比率分配26,700，按案例分配资金24,400。
结论：根据疾病负担将联邦性病预防资金分配给各地区可能是一种有效策略，尽管当高负担地区比低负担地区提供足够的性病预防服务的能力较低时，这种效率可能会降低或消除。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:There is no doubt that mental health care should be geared toward evidence, cost-effectiveness, and need. Health care data that allow comparisons of demand and real needs are scarce. This is especially true for outpatient care. METHOD:The aim of this study was to assess and analyze data from health insurance plans and social welfare. RESULTS:The costs of mental health care in Germany amount to 13 mio per year and 100,000 population. Health insurance schemes account for two thirds of total costs and social welfare for one third. The distribution of expenses seems not to be based on need analyses. Especially the chronically mentally ill are disadvantaged. CONCLUSIONS:The redistribution of expenses from inpatient to outpatient care including integrated health care approaches would result in more cost-effective mental health care.

背景与目标： 背景：毫无疑问，精神卫生保健应针对证据，成本效益和需求。可以比较需求和实际需求的医疗保健数据很少。对于门诊护理尤其如此。
方法：本研究的目的是评估和分析来自健康保险计划和社会福利的数据。
结果：德国的精神保健费用每年达13 mio ，并有100,000人口。健康保险计划占总费用的三分之二，社会福利占三分之一。支出的分配似乎不是基于需求分析的。特别是长期患有精神疾病的人处于不利地位。
结论：从住院到门诊的费用再分配，包括综合医疗方法，将导致更具成本效益的精神医疗。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :What happens to community mental health centers when federal funding ends? Analysis of the funding patterns of a cohort of "graduate" community mental health centers indicates that these centers remained fiscally viable subsequent to termination of basic federal grants. However, further analysis revealed two distinct funding patterns within the cohort. One group relied primarily on increased third-party reimbursements to offset the end of basic federal grants. The other sought more state funds and additional federal grants available through the Community Mental Health Center Amendments of 1975. As more centers "graduate," federal "floor funding" may be necessary to insure the survival of some of them.

背景与目标： ：联邦资助结束后，社区精神卫生中心会怎样？对一批“研究生”社区精神卫生中心的资助模式进行的分析表明，这些中心在基本联邦补助金终止后仍具有财政上的生存能力。但是，进一步的分析揭示了该队列内的两种不同的筹资模式。一组主要依靠增加的第三方补偿来抵消基本联邦赠款的结束。另一个寻求通过1975年社区心理健康中心修正案获得更多的州资金和额外的联邦赠款。随着更多的中心“毕业”，可能需要联邦“底层资金”来确保其中一些的生存。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: -2

背景与目标： -2

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :New York's Empire Blue Cross and Blue Shield conversion from nonprofit to for-profit form has considerable legal significance. Three aspects of the conversion make the case unique: the role of the state legislature in directing the disposition of the conversion assets, the fact that it made itself the primary beneficiary of those assets, and the actions of the state attorney general defending the state rather than the public interest in the charitable assets. Drawing on several centuries of common law rejecting the legislative power to direct the disposition of charitable funds, this article argues that the legislature lacked power to control the conversion and direct the disposition of its proceeds and that its actions not only undermined the nonprofit form but also raised constitutional concerns.

背景与目标： ：纽约的帝国蓝十字和蓝盾从非营利组织转换为营利组织具有相当大的法律意义。转换的三个方面使案件具有独特性：州立法机关在指导转换资产处置方面的作用，事实使其成为资产的主要受益人，以及州检察长为国家辩护的行为而不是慈善资产的公共利益。借鉴几个世纪以来的普通法，立法机构拒绝指导对慈善基金进行处置的权力，这篇文章认为，立法机关缺乏控制转换和引导其收益处置的权力，其行动不仅破坏了非营利组织的形式，而且破坏了非营利组织的形式。引起了宪法方面的关注。