BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Middle East and North Africa (MENA) encompass very unique populations, with a rich history and encompasses characteristic ethnic, linguistic and genetic diversity. The genetic diversity of MENA region has been largely unknown. The recent availability of whole-exome and whole-genome sequences from the region has made it possible to collect population-specific allele frequencies. The integration of data sets from this region would provide insights into the landscape of genetic variants in this region. We integrated genetic variants from multiple data sets systematically, available from this region to create a compendium of over 26 million genetic variations. The variants were systematically annotated and their allele frequencies in the data sets were computed and available as a web interface which enables quick query. As a proof of principle for application of the compendium for genetic epidemiology, we analyzed the allele frequencies for variants in transglutaminase 1 (TGM1) gene, associated with autosomal recessive lamellar ichthyosis. Our analysis revealed that the carrier frequency of selected variants differed widely with significant interethnic differences. To the best of our knowledge, al mena is the first and most comprehensive repertoire of genetic variations from the Arab, Middle Eastern and North African region. We hope al mena would accelerate Precision Medicine in the region.

背景与目标： ：中东和北非（MENA）拥有非常独特的人口，有着悠久的历史，并拥有独特的种族，语言和遗传多样性。中东和北非地区的遗传多样性在很大程度上是未知的。来自该地区的全外显子组和全基因组序列的最新可用性使得收集特定人群的等位基因频率成为可能。来自该区域的数据集的整合将提供对该区域遗传变异的概况的见识。我们系统地整合了来自该地区的多个数据集的遗传变异，以创建一个超过2600万种遗传变异的纲要。系统对变体进行了注释，并计算了数据集中的等位基因频率，并将其用作可快速查询的网络界面。作为遗传流行病学纲要应用原则的证明，我们分析了转谷氨酰胺酶1（TGM1）基因变异的等位基因频率，与常染色体隐性层状鱼鳞病相关。我们的分析表明，所选变体的载波频率差异很大，种族间存在显着差异。据我们所知，almena是阿拉伯，中东和北非地区遗传变异的第一个也是最全面的库。我们希望，法医学将促进该地区的精准医学。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Venoms of Russell's vipers (genus Daboia) are known for their deadly coagulopathic and other effects. We herein studied various isoforms of venom phospholipases A(2) (PLAs) from two Daboia species at their geographic boundary. From Myanmar Daboia siamensis venom (designated as DsM), four PLAs (designated DsM-aI, aI', aII' and bI') were purified, and the cDNAs encoding two acidic (DsM-aI and aII) and two basic PLAs (DsM-bI and S1) were also cloned from its venom-glands. DsM-S1 is identical to the major venom PLA of southern India Daboia russelii, but the protein is absent from the venom. Additionally, four PLAs (designated DrK-aI, aII, bI and bII) were cloned from cDNA obtained from venom glands of a Kolkata D. russelii, and the PLAs were purified from the pooled venom (designated as DrK). The acidic DrK-aI is the most neurotoxic and lethal among these PLAs; DsM-aI which differs from DrK-aI by only the Phe2 substitution shows greatly reduced enzymatic activity and lethality. Both acidic PLAs do not form dimeric complex with basic PLAs in the same venoms. DsM-bI' is neurotoxic and lethal but its orthologous DrK-bI (97% identical to DsM-bI') is a much weaker toxin. Given the fact that most of the orthologous PLAs of DrK and DsM share 97-100% sequence identity, Daboia vipers of Myanmar and Kolkata must be closely related. Molecular phylogenetic analyses on 30 venom PLAs of Eurasian vipers' revealed co-evolution of five subtypes of venom PLAs in both Daboia and Vipera genera. Our results shed light on the intra- and inter-species variations and structure-function relationships of viperid venom PLAs.

背景与目标： ：Russell的毒蛇（Daboia属）的毒液以致命的凝血病和其他功效而闻名。我们在这里研究了来自两个Daboia物种在其地理边界处的毒性磷脂酶A（2）（PLA）的各种同工型。从缅甸Daboia siamensis毒液（指定为DsM）中，纯化了四个PLA（指定为DsM-aI，aI'，aII'和bI'），编码两个酸性（DsM-aI和aII）和两个碱性PLA（DsM）的cDNA。 -bI和S1）也从其毒腺中克隆得到。 DsM-S1与印度南部Daboia russelii的主要毒液PLA相同，但毒液中不存在该蛋白质。另外，从获自加尔各答罗氏沼虾的毒腺的cDNA克隆了四个PLA（命名为DrK-aI，aII，bI和bII），并从合并的毒液（命名为DrK）中纯化了PLA。在这些PLA中，酸性DrK-aI具有最高的神经毒性和致死性。 DsM-aI与DrK-aI的不同之处仅在于Phe2取代，显示酶活性和杀伤力大大降低。两种酸性PLA在同一毒液中均不会与碱性PLA形成二聚体复合物。 DsM-bI'具有神经毒性和致死性，但其直系同源的DrK-bI（与DsM-bI'同源97％）是一种弱得多的毒素。鉴于大多数DrK和DsM的直系同源PLA拥有97-100％的序列同一性，因此缅甸和加尔各答的Daboia蛇蝎必须紧密相关。对欧亚vi蛇的30种毒液PLA进行分子系统发育分析，揭示了Daboia和Vipera属中5种亚型毒液PLA的共同进化。我们的研究结果揭示了蛇毒PLA的种内和种间变异以及结构与功能的关系。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :From November 2003 to March 2004 a total of 100 fecal specimens from infants and children with acute gastroenteritis in the city of Birobidzhan, Eastern Russia were tested for the presence of diarrheal viruses by RT-multiplex PCR. Of these, 74 fecal specimens were positive for diarrheal viruses and this represented 74%. Among the diarrheal viruses detected, group A rotavirus was the most prevalent (67%; 67 of 100), followed by norovirus (4%; 4 of 100), group C rotavirus (1%, 1 of 100), sapovirus (1%; 1 of 100), and hepatitis A virus (1%; 1 of 100). It was found that 86.6% (58 of 67) of group A rotavirus were serotyped as G3. Sapovirus and hepatitis A virus were genetically determined to belong to GI/1 and subgenotype 1A, respectively. Interestingly, all norovirus isolates in the study turned out to make a novel cluster when polymerase-based grouping was performed. It is noteworthy to point out that these norovirus isolates were further genetically characterized as naturally occurring recombinants, which were firstly found circulating in the Russian population studied. Breakpoint analysis of recombinant norovirus showed that the recombination site was at the open reading frame (ORF)1/ORF2 overlap. This is the first report of the existence of acute gastroenteritis caused by recombinant norovirus in Eastern Russia.

背景与目标： ：2003年11月至2004年3月，通过RT多重PCR检测了俄罗斯东部比罗比詹市的100例急性胃肠炎婴儿和儿童的粪便标本。其中，74份粪便标本的腹泻病毒呈阳性，占74％。在检测到的腹泻病毒中，A组轮状病毒最为流行（67％； 100分之67），其次是诺如病毒（4％； 100分之4），C组轮状病毒（1％，100分之一），沙波病毒（1％） ； 1/100）和甲型肝炎病毒（1％； 1/100）。发现A组轮状病毒的86.6％（67个中的58个）血清分型为G3。沙波病毒和甲型肝炎病毒在遗传上分别确定为GI / 1和亚型1A。有趣的是，当进行基于聚合酶的分组时，研究中的所有诺如病毒分离物都形成了一个新的簇。值得注意的是，这些诺如病毒的分离株在基因上进一步被鉴定为天然存在的重组体，它们首先在被研究的俄罗斯人群中发现。重组诺如病毒的断点分析表明重组位点在开放阅读框（ORF）1 / ORF2重叠处。这是俄罗斯东部重组诺如病毒引起的急性胃肠炎的首次报道。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVES:To assess the proportion of patients lost to programme (died, lost to follow-up, transferred out) between HIV diagnosis and start of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa, and determine factors associated with loss to programme. METHODS:Systematic review and meta-analysis. We searched PubMed and EMBASE databases for studies in adults. Outcomes were the percentage of patients dying before starting ART, the percentage lost to follow-up, the percentage with a CD4 cell count, the distribution of first CD4 counts and the percentage of eligible patients starting ART. Data were combined using random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS:Twenty-nine studies from sub-Saharan Africa including 148,912 patients were analysed. Six studies covered the whole period from HIV diagnosis to ART start. Meta-analysis of these studies showed that of the 100 patients with a positive HIV test, 72 (95% CI 60-84) had a CD4 cell count measured, 40 (95% CI 26-55) were eligible for ART and 25 (95% CI 13-37) started ART. There was substantial heterogeneity between studies (P < 0.0001). Median CD4 cell count at presentation ranged from 154 to 274 cells/μl. Patients eligible for ART were less likely to become lost to programme (25%vs. 54%, P < 0.0001), but eligible patients were more likely to die (11%vs. 5%, P < 0.0001) than ineligible patients. Loss to programme was higher in men, in patients with low CD4 cell counts and low socio-economic status and in recent time periods. CONCLUSIONS:Monitoring and care in the pre-ART time period need improvement, with greater emphasis on patients not yet eligible for ART.

背景与目标： 目的：评估在撒哈拉以南非洲艾滋病毒诊断与开始抗逆转录病毒治疗（ART）之间因计划而流失（死亡，失去随访，转出）的患者比例，并确定与计划流失相关的因素。
方法：系统评价和荟萃分析。我们在PubMed和EMBASE数据库中进行了成人研究。结果是开始接受抗逆转录病毒治疗之前死亡的患者百分比，随访损失的百分比，具有CD4细胞计数的百分比，首次CD4计数的分布以及符合条件的开始抗逆转录病毒治疗的患者的百分比。使用随机效应荟萃分析合并数据。
结果：分析了来自撒哈拉以南非洲地区的29项研究，包括148,912名患者。六项研究涵盖了从艾滋病毒诊断到抗病毒治疗的整个过程。对这些研究的荟萃分析显示，在100例HIV检测呈阳性的患者中，有72例（95％CI 60-84）的CD4细胞计数被测量，40例（95％CI 26-55）符合ART的条件，而25例（95％CI 26-55）符合条件。 95％CI 13-37）开始接受抗逆转录病毒治疗。研究之间存在很大的异质性（P <0.0001）。呈现时CD4细胞的中位数范围为154至274细胞/μl。有资格接受抗逆转录病毒治疗的患者不太可能失去程序（25％vs. 54％，P <0.0001），但与不符合资格的患者相比，有资格死亡的患者更有可能死亡（11％vs. 5％，P <0.0001）。男性，CD4细胞计数低，社会经济地位低的患者以及最近一段时间的程序丢失率更高。
结论：在ART治疗之前的时期内的监测和护理需要改善，重点更多的是尚未获得ART治疗资格的患者。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Ticks from mainland Australia (Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland) and Tasmania, identified morphologically as either Ixodes holocyclus or Ixodes cornuatus, were compared genetically using 24 enzyme loci. The results showed that ticks from three localities in Victoria were genetically similar to I. cornuatus in Tasmania, but both groups had fixed genetic differences at >45% of loci compared with other ticks on the mainland. In addition, there were fixed genetic differences at 0-60% of loci among I. holocyclus from different localities on the mainland. Ixodes holocyclus samples could be divided into four distinct clusters (with fixed genetic differences >15%), three of which were represented by one or two specimens. Nonetheless, these electrophoretic data suggest that I. holocyclus represents a species complex. The results also showed that the morphological criteria used to identify specimens were not always accurate because several specimens had been mis-identified morphologically. Despite limitations with the morphological identification, this study has demonstrated that I. cornuatus can be distinguished from the I. holocyclus species complex using six enzyme loci, providing the foundation for a re-examination of morphological characteristics. The present study has shown that I. cornuatus and the I. holocyclus complexes have a greater distribution than previously reported, with both occurring in sympatry at Cape Patterson, on the southern coastline of Victoria.

背景与目标： ：使用24个酶基因座对来自澳大利亚大陆（维多利亚州，新南威尔士州和昆士兰州）和塔斯马尼亚州的Ti虫进行了形态学比较，这些Ti虫在形态学上被鉴定为全环凤仙或角须凤仙。结果表明，维多利亚州三个地方的tick在遗传上与塔斯马尼亚州的角I相似，但与大陆上的其他tick相比，两组的固定遗传差异均在> 45％的位点上。另外，来自大陆不同地区的全环金枪鱼在基因座的0-60％处存在固定的遗传差异。整轴虫的样本可分为四个不同的类群（固定的遗传差异> 15％），其中三个由一个或两个标本代表。尽管如此，这些电泳数据表明全环线虫代表一种物种复合体。结果还表明，用于鉴定标本的形态学标准并不总是准确的，因为一些标本在形态上被错误地鉴定。尽管在形态学鉴定上有局限性，但这项研究表明，可以使用六个酶基因座将角corn与全轮虫物种区分开，为形态特征的重新研究奠定了基础。本研究表明，角鬣狗和全环线虫的分布比以前报道的要大，它们都发生在维多利亚州南部海岸线的海角帕特森的交界处。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :South Africa has long recognized partnerships between the public and private sectors as a policy objective in health, but experience is still limited and poorly documented. The objectives of this article are to understand the factors that increase the likelihood of success of public-private interactions in South Africa, and identify and discuss opportunities for them to be scaled up. There is a strong legislative framework and a number of guidelines and tools that have been developed by the Treasury for managing partnerships. The review of literature confirmed the need for the state to have effective regulations in order to oversee quality and standards and to provide stewardship and oversight. The public sector requires sufficient capacity not only to manage relationships with the private sector but also to enable innovation and experimentation. Evaluation is an integral part of all interactions not only to learn from successes but also to identify any perverse incentives that may lead to unintended consequences. Four case studies show that the private for-profit sector is already engaged in a number of projects that are closely aligned to current health system reform priorities. Factors that increase the likelihood of interactions being successful include: increasing the government's capacity to manage public-private relationships; choosing public-private interactions that are strategically important to national goals; building a knowledge base on what works, where and why; moving from pilots to large scale initiatives; harnessing the contracting expertise in private providers; and encouraging innovation and learning.

背景与目标： 南非：长期以来，公立和私营部门之间的伙伴关系已被公认为卫生领域的政策目标，但经验仍然有限，文献记载也很少。本文的目的是了解增加南非公私互动成功的可能性的因素，并确定和讨论扩大其规模的机会。财政部已经建立了强有力的立法框架以及许多准则和工具来管理伙伴关系。对文献的审查证实，国家有必要制定有效的法规，以监督质量和标准，并提供管理和监督。公共部门不仅需要足够的能力来管理与私营部门的关系，而且还需要进行创新和试验。评估是所有互动中不可或缺的一部分，不仅可以从成功中学习，而且可以识别可能导致意想不到的后果的任何不正当动机。四个案例研究表明，私营营利部门已经参与了许多与当前卫生系统改革优先事项紧密相关的项目。增加互动成功的可能性的因素包括：提高政府管理公私关系的能力；选择对国家目标具有战略意义的公私互动；建立关于什么有效，在哪里以及为什么起作用的知识库；从试点转向大规模计划；利用私人提供商的订约专业知识；并鼓励创新和学习。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :We sought to assess if electronic messaging/reminders could increase human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine completion among adolescents and HPV knowledge among their parents. The study was conducted in two clinics in eastern North Carolina from March 2014-March 2016. Participants included English-speaking and/or Spanish-speaking, uninsured or Medicaid-insured parents and their children (ages 9-17). Intervention participants received text/email appointment reminders and education messages and controls received standard-of-care. The final sample included 257 parent-child dyads. Most identified as Black (60%) or Hispanic (28%). Completion rates for intervention and control groups were similar for HPV dose 2 (65% vs. 65%) and HPV dose 3 (35% vs. 30%), respectively. Although knowledge change was higher for the intervention group, this difference was not statistically significant. Those who reported provider vaccine recommendation were 1.8 times more likely to complete the series. Electronic reminders to promote vaccine completion were not effective in this population. More research is needed.

背景与目标： ：我们试图评估电子消息传递/提醒是否可以提高青少年中人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）疫苗的接种率以及其父母中HPV的知识。该研究于2014年3月至2016年3月在北卡罗莱纳州东部的两家诊所进行。参与者包括讲英语和/或说西班牙语，没有保险或有医疗补助的父母及其子女（9-17岁）。干预参与者收到了文本/电子邮件约会提醒，教育信息和控件收到了护理标准。最终样本包括257个亲子二元组。多数被确定为黑人（60％）或西班牙裔（28％）。 HPV剂量2（65％比65％）和HPV剂量3（35％比30％）的干预组和对照组的完成率相似。尽管干预组的知识变化较高，但这种差异在统计学上并不显着。报告提供者疫苗推荐的人群完成该系列疫苗的可能性是其1.8倍。促进疫苗完成的电子提醒在该人群中无效。需要更多的研究。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A total of 876 nets (229 Interceptor(®), 363 Olyset(®), and 284 PermaNet(®)) were collected 14 months post-distribution of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) from 811 households of internally displaced and host communities in Dar Sila District in eastern Chad to examine their physical condition. Holes were recorded by using three hole categories (average diameter = 2, 3.5, and 15 cm) and a Proportionate Hole Index (pHI). A total of 69.5% were in poor or very poor condition. There was no significant difference in the performance between the polyester 75 denier LLINs, but they had 4.22 times the odds of having a pHI ≥ 175 (poor or very poor condition) than polyethylene 150 denier LLINs; and 39.2% were unserviceable (pHI ≥ 300) compared with only 7.7% of the polyethylene LLINs. These results provide the first comparative data on LLIN material durability to guide procurement and replacement practice, and to inform urgently needed changes in LLIN international minimum specifications and product standards.

背景与目标： ：在分发了811个内部流离失所者和寄主家庭的持久杀虫网（LLIN）之后14个月，共收集了876个蚊帐（229个Interceptor（®），363个Olyset（®）和284个PermaNet（®））。乍得东部达西拉区的社区，以检查他们的身体状况。通过使用三种孔类别（平均直径= 2、3.5和15 cm）和比例孔指数（pHI）记录孔。共有69.5％的人口处于贫困或非常贫困状态。聚酯75旦LLIN的性能之间没有显着差异，但与聚乙烯150旦LLIN相比，它们的pHI≥175（差或非常差）的几率是4.22倍。仅有39.7％的聚乙烯LLIN不可用（pHI≥300），而只有7.7％的聚乙烯LLIN不可用。这些结果提供了有关LLIN材料耐用性的首个比较数据，以指导采购和更换实践，并为LLIN国际最低规格和产品标准提供了急需的变更信息。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Solar drying is one of the most efficient and cost-effective, renewable, and sustainable technologies to conserve agricultural products in Asian and sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries. This review paper presents the different types of solar dryers that are widely used in Africa and Asia. In addition, the pre-eminent effects of their use on product quality, as well as their economic, environmental, and social impacts, are highlighted. Since financial, external, and structural factors play a key role in the adoption and scaling of solar dryers, this paper also discusses the impact of these factors on the effectiveness of solar drying technologies in selected Asian and SSA countries.

背景与目标： ：太阳能干燥是保护亚洲和撒哈拉以南非洲（SSA）国家农产品的最有效，最具成本效益，可再生和可持续的技术之一。这篇评论文章介绍了非洲和亚洲广泛使用的不同类型的太阳能干燥机。此外，还强调了其使用对产品质量的显着影响及其经济，环境和社会影响。由于财务，外部和结构因素在太阳能干燥机的采用和扩展中起着关键作用，因此本文还讨论了这些因素对某些亚洲国家和SSA国家中太阳能干燥技术有效性的影响。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :While adolescents have received increasing attention in the global HIV response and international strategies and commitments, adolescent mothers and their children remain largely overlooked in research, funding and, programming for health-related outcomes. We conducted an extensive scoping review of current evidence on the experiences of adolescent mothers affected by HIV and their children in this region. We included published literature and conference abstracts, complemented by consultations with key stakeholders, and a review of documents through grey literature searching. First, we summarise the experiences of adolescent mothers and their children related to HIV and key health and development indicators. The syndemic of early motherhood and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa increases the vulnerability of adolescent mothers and their children. We then highlight lessons from a series of promising programmes focused on supporting adolescent mothers through novel approaches. In sub-Saharan Africa, supporting adolescent mothers living in high HIV-risk communities is critical not only to eliminate HIV/AIDS, but also to attain the Sustainable Development Goals. While research on and programming for adolescent mothers and their children is growing, the complex needs for this vulnerable group remain unmet. We conclude with evidence gaps and programming priorities for adolescent mothers affected by HIV and their children.

背景与目标： ：尽管青少年在全球艾滋病毒应对以及国际战略和承诺中受到越来越多的关注，但在为与健康相关的结果进行研究，资助和规划方面，青少年母亲及其子女仍然被忽视。我们对有关该地区受艾滋病毒感染的青春期母亲及其子女的经历的现有证据进行了范围广泛的回顾。我们收录了出版的文献和会议摘要，并与主要利益相关者进行了磋商，并通过灰色文献搜索对文档进行了审查。首先，我们总结了青春期母亲及其子女与艾滋病毒以及主要健康和发展指标相关的经验。在撒哈拉以南非洲，早孕和艾滋病毒的综合症增加了青春期母亲及其子女的脆弱性。然后，我们重点介绍了一系列有前途的计划的教训，这些计划的重点是通过新颖的方法来支持青春期的母亲。在撒哈拉以南非洲，支持生活在艾滋病毒高发地区的青春期母亲不仅对消除艾滋病毒/艾滋病至关重要，而且对于实现可持续发展目标也至关重要。尽管对青春期的母亲及其子女的研究和计划正在增长，但对这一弱势群体的复杂需求仍未得到满足。我们以受艾滋病毒及其子女影响的青春期母亲的证据差距和方案优先重点作为结论。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The introduction of new vaccines with much higher prices than traditional vaccines results in increasing budgetary pressure on immunization programs in GAVI-eligible countries, increasing the need to ensure their financial sustainability. In this context, the third EPIVAC (Epidemiology and Vaccinology) technical conference was held from February 16 to 18, 2012 at the Regional Institute of Public Health in Ouidah, Benin. Managers of ministries of health and finance from 11 West African countries (GAVI eligible countries), as well as former EPIVAC students and European experts, shared their knowledge and best practices on immunization financing at district and country level. The conference concluded by stressing five major priorities for the financial sustainability of national immunization programs (NIPs) in GAVI-eligible countries. - Strengthen public financing by increasing resources and fiscal space, improving budget processes, increasing contribution of local governments and strengthen efficiency of budget spending. - Promote equitable community financing which was recognized as a significant and essential contribution to the continuity of EPI operations. - Widen private funding by exploring prospects offered by sponsorship through foundations dedicated to immunization and by corporate social responsibility programs. - Contain the potential crowding-out effect of GAVI co-financing and ensure that decisions on new vaccine introductions are evidence-based. - Seek out innovative financing mechanisms such as taxes on food products or a national solidarity fund.

背景与目标： ：引入价格比传统疫苗高得多的新疫苗导致符合GAVI资格的国家/地区对免疫计划的预算压力增加，从而增加了确保其财务可持续性的需求。在这种情况下，2012年2月16日至18日在贝宁Ouidah的公共卫生区域学院举行了第三次EPIVAC（流行病学和疫苗学）技术会议。来自11个西非国家（符合GAVI资格的国家）的卫生与财政部的经理以及EPIVAC的前学生和欧洲专家分享了他们在地区和国家层面上的免疫融资知识和最佳实践。会议结束时强调了在符合GAVI资格的国家中国家免疫计划（NIP）的财务可持续性的五个主要优先事项。 -通过增加资源和财政空间，改善预算程序，增加地方政府的贡献并提高预算支出的效率来加强公共筹资。 -促进公平的社区融资，这被认为是对EPI运营连续性的重大和必不可少的贡献。 -通过致力于免疫的基金会和企业社会责任计划，探索赞助商提供的前景，从而扩大私人资金。 -遏制GAVI共同出资的潜在挤出效应，并确保有关新疫苗引入的决定是基于证据的。 -寻求创新的融资机制，例如食品税或国家团结基金。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Despite the availability of free tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and treatment, TB care still generates substantial costs that push people into poverty. We investigated out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for TB care and assessed the resulting economic burden and economic consequences for those with varying levels of household income in eastern China. METHODS:A cross-sectional study was conducted among TB patients in the national TB programme networks in eastern China. TB-related direct OOP costs, time loss, and coping strategies were investigated across households in different economic strata. Analysis of Variance was used to examine the differences in various costs, and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare the difference in total costs as a percentage of annual household income. RESULTS:Among 435 patients, the mean OOP total costs of TB care were USD 2389.5. In the lower-income quartile, OOP payments were lower, but costs as a percentage of reported annual household income were higher. Medical costs and costs prior to treatment accounted for 66.4 and 48.9% of the total costs, respectively. The lower the household income was, the higher the proportion of medical costs to total costs before TB treatment, but the lower the proportion of medical costs patients spent in the intensive phase. TB care caused 25.8% of TB-affected households to fall below the poverty line and caused the poverty gap (PG) to increase by United States Dollar (USD) 145.6. Patients in the poorest households had the highest poverty headcount ratio (70.2%) and PG (USD 236.1), but those in moderately poor households had the largest increase in the poverty headcount ratio (36.2%) and PG (USD 177.8) due to TB care. Patients from poor households were more likely to borrow money to cope with the costs of TB care; however, there were fewer social consequences, except for food insecurity, in poor households. CONCLUSIONS:Medical and pretreatment costs lead to high costs of TB care, especially among patients from the poorest households. It is necessary to train health system staff in general hospitals to promptly identify and refer TB patients. Pro-poor programmes are also needed to protect TB patients from the medical poverty trap.

背景与目标： 背景：尽管有免费的结核病（TB）诊断和治疗方法，但结核病护理仍然产生大量的费用，使人们陷入贫困。我们调查了结核病护理的自付费用（OOP），并评估了中国东部家庭收入水平各异的人群所承受的经济负担和经济后果。
方法：在中国东部国家结核病规划网络中对结核病患者进行了横断面研究。在不同经济阶层的家庭中调查了与结核相关的直接OOP成本，时间损失和应对策略。方差分析用于检查各种成本的差异，而Kruskal-Wallis检验用于比较总成本在家庭年收入中所占百分比的差异。
结果：在435名患者中，结核病护理的平均OOP总费用为2389.5美元。在收入较低的四分位数中，OOP支付额较低，但成本占报告的家庭年收入的百分比较高。医疗费用和治疗前费用分别占总费用的66.4％和48.9％。家庭收入越低，结核病治疗前的医疗费用在总费用中所占的比例就越高，但在强化治疗阶段花费在患者身上的医疗费用所占的比例就越低。结核病护理使25.8％的受结核病影响的家庭降至贫困线以下，并使贫困差距（PG）增加了145.6美元。最贫困家庭的患者的贫困率最高（70.2％）和PG（236.1美元），而中度贫困家庭的患者由于结核病，贫困率最高（36.2％）和PG（177.8美元）关心。来自贫困家庭的患者更有可能借钱来应付结核病护理费用；但是，除了粮食不安全以外，贫困家庭的社会后果较少。
结论：医疗和预处理费用导致结核病护理的高昂费用，尤其是在最贫困家庭的患者中。有必要对综合医院的卫生系统人员进行培训，以迅速发现并转诊结核病患者。还需要扶贫计划，以保护结核病患者免受医疗贫困陷阱的困扰。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Much of the recent debate over race, genetics, and health has focused on the extent to which typological notions of race have biological meaning. Less attention, however, has been paid to the assumptions about the nature of "populations" that both inform contemporary biological and medical research and that underlie the concept of race. Focusing specifically on Africa in the 1930s and 1940s, this paper explores the history of how fluid societies were transformed into bounded units amenable to scientific analysis. In the so-called "Golden Age of Ethnography," university-trained social anthropologists, primarily from Britain and South Africa, took to the field to systematically study, organize, and order the world's diverse peoples. Intent on creating a scientific methodology of neutral observation, they replaced amateur travelers, traders, colonial administrators, and missionaries as authoritative knowledge producers about the customs, beliefs, and languages of indigenous peoples. At the same time, linguists were engaged in unifying African languages and mapping language onto primordial "tribal" territories. We argue that the notion of populations or "tribes" as discrete units suitable for scientific sampling and classification emerged in the 1930s and 1940s with the ethnographic turn in social anthropology and the professionalization and institutionalization of linguistics in Western and South African universities. Once named and entered into international atlases and databases by anthropologists in the U.S., the existence of populations as bounded entities became self-evident, thus setting the stage for their use in large-scale population genetic studies and the contemporary reinvigoration of broad claims of difference based on population identification.

背景与目标： ：最近有关种族，遗传学和健康的辩论大多集中在种族的类型学概念具有生物学意义的程度上。但是，人们很少关注关于“种群”性质的假设，这些假设既为当代生物学和医学研究提供了信息，又为种族概念奠定了基础。本文专门针对1930年代和1940年代的非洲，探讨了如何将流体社会转变为适合科学分析的有限单位的历史。在所谓的“人种学的黄金时代”，主要由英国和南非的受过大学训练的社会人类学家来到该领域，系统地研究，组织和整理了世界各族人民。为了创建一种科学的中立观察方法，他们取代了业余旅行者，商人，殖民地行政人员和传教士，成为有关土著人民习俗，信仰和语言的权威知识生产者。同时，语言学家们致力于统一非洲语言并将语言映射到原始的“部落”领土上。我们认为，人口或“部落”的概念是适合于科学采样和分类的离散单位，这是在1930年代和1940年代出现的，这是由于社会人类学的民族学转向以及西方和南非大学中语言学的专业化和制度化。一旦被美国人类学家命名并输入国际地图集和数据库，人口作为有限实体的存在就变得不言而喻，从而为将其用于大规模人口遗传研究和当代重新激发广泛的差异主张奠定了基础。根据人口识别。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa (SA) has the highest prevalence of pregnant women living with HIV in the world. Pregnancy and the postpartum period offer opportunities to engage women in HIV care, to prevent perinatal transmission and to optimise maternal and infant well-being. However, research suggests that remaining engaged in HIV care during this time can be challenging. METHODS AND ANALYSIS:We are conducting a 5-year prospective cohort study among pregnant women living with HIV in KZN to estimate the rates and factors associated with attrition from HIV care during this critical period. To determine who is most likely to fall out of care, we are examining a range of relevant variables informed by a socioecological model of HIV care, including individual, relational, community and healthcare system variables. We are enrolling 18-45-year-old women, at 28 weeks or more of pregnancy, who are living with HIV and currently taking antiretroviral therapies. Participants complete quantitative assessments at baseline (pregnancy) and at 6, 12, 18 and 24 months postpartum. A subset of women and their partners are invited to complete qualitative interviews to further explore their experiences in HIV care. The main study outcomes are suppressed HIV RNA and retention in care at each study assessment. Our understanding of the factors that drive postpartum attrition from HIV care will ultimately inform the development of interventions to facilitate continued engagement in postpartum HIV care. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION:This protocol has been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee (Medical) at The University of the Witwatersrand (Johannesburg, SA) and the Partners Human Research Committee at Partners HealthCare (Boston, Massachusetts, USA). Site support and approval were obtained from the District Hospital and the KZN Provincial Department of Health. Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed manuscripts, reports and both local and international presentations (Ethics Registration #170 212).

背景与目标： 简介：南非夸祖鲁-纳塔尔省（KZN）的艾滋病毒感染孕妇患病率最高。怀孕和产后提供了使妇女参与艾滋病毒预防，防止围产期传播以及优化母婴健康的机会。但是，研究表明，在这段时间内继续从事HIV护理可能是一个挑战。
方法和分析：我们正在KZN中对感染HIV的孕妇进行为期5年的前瞻性队列研究，以评估在此关键时期与HIV减员有关的比率和因素。为了确定谁最有可能失去医疗保健，我们正在研究一系列由HIV保健的社会生态学模型告知的相关变量，包括个人，亲属，社区和医疗保健系统变量。我们正在招募怀孕28周或以上的18-45岁妇女，她们感染了HIV，目前正在接受抗逆转录病毒疗法。参与者在基线（怀孕）以及产后6、12、18和24个月时完成定量评估。邀请一部分妇女及其伴侣完成定性访谈，以进一步探讨她们在艾滋病毒护理方面的经验。主要研究结果是抑制HIV RNA和在每次研究评估中保持治疗。我们对导致产后艾滋病毒减员的因素的理解最终将为干预措施的发展提供信息，以促进持续参与产后艾滋病毒的治疗。
道德与传播：本协议已获得威特沃特斯兰德大学（约翰内斯堡，南卡罗来纳州）的人类研究伦理委员会（医学）和Partners HealthCare（美国马萨诸塞州波士顿）的合作伙伴人类研究委员会的批准。现场支持和批准是从地区医院和KZN省卫生部门获得的。结果将通过同行评审的手稿，报告以及本地和国际演示进行传播（道德注册号170 212）。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The study investigated the role of climatic variables and irrigated agricultural on the seasonality of malaria transmission in New Halfa, eastern Sudan. A time-series analysis was performed using monthly climatic variables, monthly water available for irrigation of crops and monthly slide positive rate of malaria during the period 1986-2002. Cases of malaria were reported every month of the year with a mean of 13.0/100 persons/month (95% CI: 11.9-14.2), and bimodal annual pattern in autumn and winter seasons. Rainfall was the significant climatic variable in the transmission of the disease, whereas heavy rainfall was found to initiate epidemics. Temperature, relative humidity and irrigation water were not significant factors.

背景与目标： ：这项研究调查了气候变量和灌溉农业对苏丹东部新哈法地区疟疾传播季节性的影响。使用1986-2002年期间的每月气候变量，每月可用于灌溉作物的水以及每月疟疾的滑动阳性率进行了时间序列分析。每年每个月报告的疟疾病例平均为13.0 / 100人/月（95％CI：11.9-14.2），并且在秋季和冬季均呈双峰模式。降雨是疾病传播的重要气候变量，而发现大雨引发了流行病。温度，相对湿度和灌溉水不是重要因素。