BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Female entertainment workers (FEWs) in China are at increased risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, but correlates of their risky sexual behaviour remain poorly understood. Using data from a series of four surveys, this paper employs repeated measures analysis to identify individual and social correlates of consistent condom use among FEWs in Shanghai. Results reveal that both individual cognitive and social influence factors are statistically significant in their bivariate relationships to consistent condom use with a stable or non-stable partner; only prevention motivation and perceived self-efficacy in condom use remain significant in the multiple regressions. When individual and social correlates are examined together, only peer support for condom use remains a significant and independent correlate of consistent condom use in sex with a non-stable partner. Behavioural intervention is urgently needed and should take a multilevel approach, emphasizing individual prevention motivation and behavioural skills training and promoting peer/social support.

背景与目标： : 中国的女性娱乐工作者 (few) 感染艾滋病毒和其他性传播感染的风险增加，但对其危险性行为的相关性仍知之甚少。本文利用四项调查的数据，采用重复措施分析，以识别上海few中持续使用安全套的个人和社会相关性。结果表明，个体认知和社会影响因素在与稳定或非稳定伴侣一致使用安全套的双变量关系中具有统计学意义; 在多元回归中，只有预防动机和安全套使用中的自我效能感仍然显着。当将个人和社会相关性一起检查时，只有同伴对避孕套使用的支持仍然是与不稳定伴侣在性行为中一致使用避孕套的重要且独立的相关性。迫切需要行为干预，并应采取多层次的方法，强调个人预防动机和行为技能培训，并促进同伴/社会支持。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The aims of this paper were to find out the status of HIV and syphilis infection and to examine the sexual behaviours between men who have sex with men only (MSM/M) and men who have sex with both men and women (MSM/W), as well as to determine the correlates for HIV and syphilis infection among MSM/M and MSM/W, respectively. Among 1693 MSM who participated in the study, the proportions of MSM/M and MSM/W were 82.1% and 17.9%, respectively. The prevalences of HIV infection were 7.0% in MSM/M and 6.6% in MSM/W and the prevalences of syphilis infection were 11.9% and 13.2%, respectively. Among the MSM/M subset, the correlates both for HIV and syphilis infection included having more sexual partners, and being receptive or both insertive and receptive for anal sex. Among the MSM/W subset, living in Chengdu was associated with HIV infection and using condoms inconsistently during anal sex was associated with syphilis infection. The findings of this survey call for interventions tailored according to the needs of different subsets of MSM.

背景与目标： : 本文的目的是了解艾滋病毒和梅毒的感染状况，并检查仅与男性发生性关系的男性 (MSM/M) 与与男性和女性发生性关系的男性 (MSM/W) 之间的性行为)，并分别确定MSM/M和MSM/W中HIV和梅毒感染的相关性。在参与研究的1693名MSM中，MSM/M和MSM/W的比例分别为82.1% 和17.9%。在MSM/M中7.0% HIV感染的患病率，在MSM/W中6.6%，梅毒感染的患病率分别为11.9% 和13.2%。在MSM/M子集中，与HIV和梅毒感染的相关性包括拥有更多的性伴侣，以及对肛交的接受性或插入性和接受性。在MSM/W亚组中，居住在成都与HIV感染有关，在肛交期间不一致使用避孕套与梅毒感染有关。这项调查的结果要求根据MSM不同子集的需求量身定制干预措施。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:This study provides a description and analysis of the development of occupational diseases in China as recorded in the official statistics during the period 2000-2010, identifies major challenges, and explores possible solutions for prevention and control. METHODS:In-depth textual analysis and data analysis of China's annual national reports of occupational diseases, as well as of corresponding policy and regulation documents. RESULTS:The number of recorded cases of occupational diseases increased rapidly in China between 2000 and 2010. Pneumoconiosis was the most prevalent category of occupational diseases. Chemical poisonings accounted for 13% of the cases of occupational diseases. CONCLUSIONS:Difficulties in diagnosis and inefficient surveillance are major impediments to the mitigation of occupational diseases. The new definition of occupational disease has provided an opportunity to enlarge the Catalogue of Occupational Diseases. Improved coordination of the different chemical regulations meant to protect human health may also facilitate the prevention of occupational disease.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The carotenoids in the peel and flesh of 41 apricot cultivars were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed by UHPLC-APCI-MS/MS, and the L*, a*, b* and quality indexes of the fruits were determined. The results showed that the L*, a*, b* and quality indexes of the fruits were quite different, and 13 carotenoids were detected in the peel and flesh of apricots, among which ε-carotene, α-cryptoxanthin and apocarotenal were newly detected carotenoids in apricots. The total carotenoid content of the 41 apricot cultivars varied from 20.983 to 320.278 μg/g FW, and the total carotenoid content varied from 17.353 to 222.098 μg/g FW in the peel and from 2.536 to 98.179 μg/g FW in the flesh. The main components of apricot fruits were β-carotene and (E/Z)-phytoene, followed by β-cryptoxanthin and lutein. This study shows that carotenoids in apricot fruits have rich metabolic diversity.

背景与目标： : 用uhplc-apci-ms/MS对41个杏品种的果皮和果肉中的类胡萝卜素进行了定性和定量分析，测定了果实的L *，a *，b * 和品质指标。结果表明，果实的L *，a *，b * 和品质指标差异较大，在杏皮和果肉中检测到13种类胡萝卜素，其中 ε-胡萝卜素，α-隐黄质和apcarotenal是新检测到的。杏子中的类胡萝卜素。41个杏品种的总类胡萝卜素含量在20.983至320.278 μ g/g FW之间变化，果皮中的总类胡萝卜素含量在17.353至222.098 μ g/g FW之间变化，果肉中的总类胡萝卜素含量在2.536至98.179 μ g/g FW之间变化。杏果实的主要成分是 β-胡萝卜素和 (E/Z)-植物素，其次是 β-隐黄质和叶黄素。这项研究表明，杏果中的类胡萝卜素具有丰富的代谢多样性。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:While the cities in China in which spinal cord injury (SCI) studies have been conducted previously are at the forefront of medical care, northwest China is relatively underdeveloped economically, and the epidemiological characteristics of SCI have rarely been reported in this region. METHODS:The SCI epidemiological survey software developed was used to analyze the data of patients treated with SCI from 2014 to 2018. The sociodemographic characteristics of patients, including name, age, sex, and occupation, were recorded. The following medical record data, obtained from physical and radiographic examinations, were included in the study: data on the cause of injury, fracture location, associated injuries, and level of injury. Neurological function was evaluated using the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) impairment scale. In addition, the treatment and complications during hospitalization were documented. RESULTS:A total of 3487 patients with SCI with a mean age of 39.5 ± 11.2 years were identified in this study, and the male to female ratio was 2.57:1. The primary cause of SCI was falls (low falls 47.75%, high falls 37.31%), followed by traffic accidents (8.98%), and impact with falling objects (4.39%). Of all patients, 1786 patients (51.22%) had complications and other injuries. According to the ASIA impairment scale, the numbers of grade A, B, C, and D injuries were 747 (21.42%), 688 (19.73%), 618 (17.72%), and 1434 (41.12%), respectively. During the hospitalization period, a total of 1341 patients experienced complications, with a percentage of 38.46%. Among all complications, pulmonary infection was the most common (437, 32.59%), followed by hyponatremia (326, 24.31%), bedsores (219, 16.33%), urinary tract infection (168, 12.53%), deep venous thrombosis (157, 11.71%), and others (34, 2.53%). Notably, among 3487 patients with SCI, only 528 patients (15.14%) received long-term rehabilitation treatment. CONCLUSION:The incidence of SCI in northwest China was on the rise with higher proportion in males; fall and the MCVs were the primary causes of SCI. The occupations most threatened by SCI are farmers and workers. The investigation and analysis of the epidemiological characteristics of SCI in respiratory complications are important factors leading to death after SCI, especially when the SCI occurs in the cervical spinal cord. Finally, the significance of SCI rehabilitation should be addressed.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: INTRODUCTION:There is growing attention to social mobility's impact on tobacco use, but few studies have differentiated the two conceptually distinct mechanisms through which changes in social class can affect tobacco smoking: the class status effect and the mobility effect. AIMS AND METHODS:I applied Diagonal Reference Modeling to smoking and heavy smoking among respondents of the 1991 China Health and Nutrition Survey who were revisited two decades later in 2011 (n = 3841, 49% male, baseline mean age was 38 years). I divided the sample into six social classes (non-employment, self-employed, owners, workers, farmers, and retirees) and measured social mobility by changes in income and occupational prestige. RESULTS:About 61.7% of men were smokers and those from the classes of workers, owners, and self-employees consumed more cigarettes compared to the unemployed, but women smokers (3.7%) tend to be from the lower classes (unemployed and farmers). Controlling for social class, each 1000 Yuan increase in annual income led to smoking 0.03 more cigarettes (p < .05) and 1% increase (p < .05) in the likelihood of heavy smoking among men, but the income effect is null for women. Upwardly mobile men (a 10-points surge in occupational prestige) smoked like their destination class (weight = 78%), whereas men with downward mobility were more similar to peers in the original class (weight = 60%). CONCLUSIONS:Contrary to the social gradient in smoking in other industrial countries, higher class status and upward mobility are each associated with more smoking among Chinese men, but not among women. IMPLICATIONS:Tobacco control policies should prioritize male smoking at workplaces and the instrumental purposes of using tobacco as gifts and social lubricant. Taxation may counter the surge in smoking brought by individuals' income increase after upward mobility. Caution should be paid to women joining the similar social gradient in smoking as they gain foothold in the labor market.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the clinical characteristics and laboratory test results in pregnant women with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). METHODS:A retrospective study to review and compare clinical data including electronic medical records and laboratory tests from pregnant and nonpregnant patients admitted the Central Hospital of Wuhan, China from December 8, 2019 to April 1, 2020. RESULTS:A total of 72 women (30 pregnant and 42 nonpregnant) with COVID-19 were included. No patients developed severe pneumonia during the study. Compared with the nonpregnant group, pregnant patients were admitted to hospital earlier (0.25 vs 11.00 days; P<0.001), presented milder symptoms, had a higher rate of asymptomatic infection (26.7% vs 0%), and shorter length of hospital stay (14.5 vs 17.0 days; P<0.01). Laboratory test results showed that levels of inflammation markers such as white blood cell count, neutrophil count and percentage, C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, and D-dimer were significantly higher in pregnant women, whereas mean lymphocyte percentage was significantly lower compared with nonpregnant women. CONCLUSION:In some respects, the clinical characteristics and laboratory test results of COVID-19 in pregnant patients seems to be distinctive from their nonpregnant counterparts. Appropriate advice and positive treatment might be critical to the prognosis when dealing with these pregnant patients. Pregnant patients with COVID-19 had their own positive clinical characteristics and special laboratory test results. Responsive medical advice and active treatment for those patients are critical to recovery.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :History of chronic lung diseases and household coal use for heating and cooking are established risk factors of lung cancer; however, few studies have been able to explore these risk factors simultaneously. Xuanwei, China, has some of the highest rates of lung cancer in China and most residents experience substantial in-home coal smoke exposures. Using a population-based case-control study of 498 lung cancer cases and 498 age-matched controls, we evaluated the risk of lung cancer in relation to coal smoke exposure and history of chronic lung diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, tuberculosis (TB), chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated by conditional logistic regression adjusting for potential confounders. We observed an increased risk of lung cancer with history of any chronic lung disease among males (OR = 14.2; 95%CI = 4.3-46.9), females (OR = 2.6; 95%CI = 1.1-6.3), smokers (OR = 12.7; 95%CI = 3.5-45.8), and nonsmokers (OR = 2.6; 95%CI = 1.1-6.4). Specifically, TB (OR = 83.7; 95%CI = 11.0-634.7), COPD (OR = 3.2; 95%CI = 1.7-6.0), and emphysema and chronic bronchitis (OR = 3.3; 95%CI = 1.7-6.4) were associated with increased risks. These findings suggest that history of chronic lung diseases may also increase risk of lung cancer in populations with indoor coal smoke exposures.

背景与目标： : 慢性肺部疾病史和家庭取暖和烹饪用煤是肺癌的危险因素; 然而，很少有研究能够同时探讨这些危险因素。中国宣威的肺癌发病率是中国最高的，大多数居民都有大量的家庭煤烟暴露。通过对498例肺癌病例和498年龄匹配的对照进行基于人群的病例对照研究，我们评估了与煤烟暴露和慢性肺部疾病 (包括慢性阻塞性肺疾病 (COPD)，哮喘，结核病 (TB)，慢性支气管炎，还有肺气肿。优势比 (ORs) 和95% 置信区间 (CIs) 通过条件logistic回归调整潜在混杂因素来计算。我们观察到男性 (OR = 14.2; 95% CI = 4.3-46.9)，女性 (OR = 2.6; 95% CI = 1.1-6.3)，吸烟者 (OR = 12.7; 95% CI = 3.5-45.8) 和不吸烟者 (OR = 2.6; 95% CI = 1.1-6.4)。具体而言，TB (OR = 83.7; 95% CI = 11.0-634.7)，COPD (OR = 3.2; 95% CI = 1.7-6.0)，以及肺气肿和慢性支气管炎 (OR = 3.3; 95% CI = 1.7-6.4) 与风险增加相关。这些发现表明，慢性肺部疾病的病史也可能增加室内煤烟暴露人群患肺癌的风险。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Self-perception of uselessness is associated with increased mortality risk in older adults. However, it is unknown whether and to what extent changes in perceived uselessness are associated with mortality risk. METHODS:Using four waves of national longitudinal data of older adults from China (2005, 2008, 2011, and 2014), this study examines the association between changes in perceived uselessness and risk of subsequent mortality. Perceived uselessness is classified into three major categories: high levels (always/often), moderate levels (sometimes), and low levels (seldom/never). Five categories are used to measure change over three-year intervals: (1) persistently high levels, (2) increases to moderate/high levels, (3) persistent moderate levels, (4) decreases to moderate/low levels, and (5) persistently low levels. Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate mortality risk associated with changes in levels of perceived uselessness. RESULTS:Compared to those with persistently low levels of perceived uselessness, those with persistently high levels of feeling useless had 80% increased hazard ratio (HR) in mortality [HR =1.80, 95% CIs: 1.57-2.08, p < 0.001]; and those with increasing levels, persistently moderate levels, and decreasing levels of perceived uselessness had 42% [HR = 1.42, 95% CIs: 1.27-159, p < 0.001], 50% [HR = 1.50, 95% CIs: 1.32-1.71, p < 0.001], and 23% [HR = 1.23, 95% CIs: 1.09-1.37, p < 0.001] increased hazard ratio in mortality, respectively, when background characteristics were taken into account. The associations were partially attenuated when socioeconomic, family/social support, behavioral, and health-related covariates were individually taken into account. Older adults with persistently high and moderate levels of perceived uselessness still exhibited significantly higher risks of mortality (16% [HR = 1.16, 95% CIs: 1.00-1.135, p < 0.05] and 22% [HR = 1.16, 95% CIs: 1.06-1.139, p < 0.015], respectively) after adjusting for all covariates, although no significant mortality risks were found for either increasing to moderate/high levels or decreasing to moderate/low levels of perceived uselessness. CONCLUSIONS:Persistently high and moderate levels of perceived uselessness are associated with significant increases in mortality risk. These findings have important implications for promoting successful aging in China.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Re-emerging human adenovirus types 14 (Ad14) and 55 (Ad55) have caused severe respiratory diseases and even deaths during recent outbreaks. However, the seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) in healthy adults, which may reflect previous circulation and help to predict potential outbreaks, remains unclear. In this study, we established micro-neutralizing (MN) assays on the basis of recombinant Ad14 and Ad55 reporter viruses, and we investigated serum nAbs in healthy blood donors from Southern China. We found that the overall seropositive rates were 24.8% and 22.4% for Ad14 and Ad55 nAbs, respectively. The seropositive rates were low in individuals younger than 20, and they gradually increased with age. Ad55-seropositive individuals tended to have high nAb titers (>1000), while low (72-200) and moderate (201-1000) nAb levels were frequently observed in Ad14-seropositive ones. Surprisingly, the seropositive rates and nAb levels were associated with the blood type but not the gender of the blood donors, with type AB individuals displaying higher seropositive rates and nAb levels. Interestingly, a significant positive correlation was observed between Ad14 and Ad55 seroprevalence, and higher titers of nAbs were detected in double-positive individuals compared to single-positive ones. These results clarified the human humoral immune responses against Ad14 and Ad55 and revealed a low level of herd immunity in some subpopulations, which emphasized the importance of monitoring these two highly virulent adenoviruses and reinforced the development of prophylactic vaccines.

背景与目标： : 重新出现的人类腺病毒14型 (Ad14) 和55型 (Ad55) 在最近的暴发中引起了严重的呼吸系统疾病，甚至死亡。然而，健康成年人中和抗体 (nAbs) 的血清阳性率可能反映了先前的循环并有助于预测潜在的爆发，目前尚不清楚。在这项研究中，我们基于重组Ad14和Ad55报告病毒建立了微中和 (MN) 检测方法，并研究了中国南方健康献血者的血清nAbs。我们发现Ad14和Ad55 nab的总体血清阳性率分别为24.8% 和22.4%。20岁以下的人的血清阳性率较低，并且随着年龄的增长而逐渐增加。Ad55-seropositive个体倾向于具有高nAb滴度 (>1000)，而在Ad14-seropositive个体中经常观察到低 (72-200) 和中等 (201-1000) nAb水平。令人惊讶的是，血清阳性率和nAb水平与血型有关，但与献血者的性别无关，而ab型个体的血清阳性率和nAb水平更高。有趣的是，在Ad14和Ad55血清阳性率之间观察到显着的正相关，与单阳性个体相比，在双阳性个体中检测到更高的nab滴度。这些结果阐明了针对Ad14和Ad55的人类体液免疫反应，并揭示了某些亚群中的群体免疫水平较低，这强调了监测这两种高毒性腺病毒的重要性，并加强了预防性疫苗的开发。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:The oral health status of rural residents in the People's Republic of China has not been extensively studied and the relationship between poor oral health and esophageal cancer (EC) is unclear. We aim to report the oral health status of adults participating in an EC screening study conducted in a rural high-risk EC area of China and to explore the relationship between oral health and esophageal dysplasia. METHODS:National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) oral health examination procedures and the Modified Gingival Index (MGI) were used in a clinical study designed to examine risk factors for esophageal cancer and to test a new esophageal cytology sampling device. This study was conducted in three rural villages in China with high rates of EC in 2002 and was a collaborative effort involving investigators from the National Institutes of Health and the Cancer Institute of the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences. RESULTS:Nearly 17% of the study participants aged 40-67 years old were edentulous. Overall, the mean number of adjusted missing teeth (including third molars and retained dental roots) was 13.8 and 35% had 7 contacts or less. Women were more likely to experience greater tooth loss than men. The average age at the time of first tooth loss for those with no posterior functional contacts was approximately 41 years for men and 36 years for women. The mean DMFT (decayed, missing, and filled teeth) score for the study population was 8.5. Older persons, females, and individuals having lower educational attainment had higher DMFT scores. The prevalence of periodontal disease (defined as at least one site with 3 mm of attachment loss and 4 mm of pocket depth) was 44.7%, and 36.7% of the study participants had at least one site with 6 mm or more of attachment loss. Results from a parsimonious multivariate model indicate that participants with poor oral health wemore likely to have esophageal dysplasia (OR = 1.59; 95% CI 1.06, 2.39). CONCLUSION:This report describes the first use of NHANES oral health protocols employed in a clinical study conducted outside of the United States. The extent and severity of poor oral health in this Chinese study group may be an important health problem and contributing factor to the prevalence of EC.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :The main objective of this study was to assess the economic cost of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in Shanghai, China, as a pilot study for future evaluations. Sixty-seven patients with AD were interviewed, and the information of the AD-related cost and resources used was collected from October 2005 to September 2006. By retrospective analysis, annual costs were calculated and expressed in Chinese renminbi (RMB). Direct cost per patient per year averaged approximately 8,432 RMB (1,058 USD), indirect cost per patient per year was 10,568 RMB (1,326 USD), and annual costs were 19,001 RMB (2,384 USD) per patient per year in this investigation. Total cost was significantly associated with the degree of severity including cognitive function (MMSE) and activity of daily living (ADL). With the increase in the number of persons at risk for developing AD, the economic burden of AD patients in China is significantly heavy.

背景与目标： : 这项研究的主要目的是评估中国上海阿尔茨海默氏病 (AD) 的经济成本，作为未来评估的试点研究。对67名AD患者进行了访谈，并从2005年10月到2006年9月收集了与AD相关的费用和所使用资源的信息。通过回顾性分析，计算年度成本，并以人民币表示。在这项调查中，每位患者每年的直接成本平均约为8,432元人民币 (1,058美元)，每位患者每年的间接成本为10,568元人民币 (1,326美元)，每位患者每年的年度成本为19,001元人民币 (2,384美元)。总成本与严重程度 (包括认知功能 (MMSE) 和日常生活活动 (ADL)) 显着相关。随着发生AD风险人数的增加，我国AD患者的经济负担明显加重。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Despite the availability of free tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis and treatment, TB care still generates substantial costs that push people into poverty. We investigated out-of-pocket (OOP) payments for TB care and assessed the resulting economic burden and economic consequences for those with varying levels of household income in eastern China. METHODS:A cross-sectional study was conducted among TB patients in the national TB programme networks in eastern China. TB-related direct OOP costs, time loss, and coping strategies were investigated across households in different economic strata. Analysis of Variance was used to examine the differences in various costs, and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare the difference in total costs as a percentage of annual household income. RESULTS:Among 435 patients, the mean OOP total costs of TB care were USD 2389.5. In the lower-income quartile, OOP payments were lower, but costs as a percentage of reported annual household income were higher. Medical costs and costs prior to treatment accounted for 66.4 and 48.9% of the total costs, respectively. The lower the household income was, the higher the proportion of medical costs to total costs before TB treatment, but the lower the proportion of medical costs patients spent in the intensive phase. TB care caused 25.8% of TB-affected households to fall below the poverty line and caused the poverty gap (PG) to increase by United States Dollar (USD) 145.6. Patients in the poorest households had the highest poverty headcount ratio (70.2%) and PG (USD 236.1), but those in moderately poor households had the largest increase in the poverty headcount ratio (36.2%) and PG (USD 177.8) due to TB care. Patients from poor households were more likely to borrow money to cope with the costs of TB care; however, there were fewer social consequences, except for food insecurity, in poor households. CONCLUSIONS:Medical and pretreatment costs lead to high costs of TB care, especially among patients from the poorest households. It is necessary to train health system staff in general hospitals to promptly identify and refer TB patients. Pro-poor programmes are also needed to protect TB patients from the medical poverty trap.

背景与目标：

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Resistance to anti-malarial drugs hinders malaria elimination. Monitoring the molecular markers of drug resistance helps improve malaria treatment policies. This study aimed to assess the distribution of molecular markers of imported Plasmodium falciparum infections. METHODS:In total, 485 P. falciparum cases imported from Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania into Zhejiang province, China, from 2016 to 2018 were investigated. Most were imported from Africa, and only a few cases originated in Asia and Oceania. Blood samples were collected from each patient. Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter (Pfcrt) at residues 72-76 and Kelch13-propeller (k13) were determined by nested PCR and DNA sequence. RESULTS:Wild-type Pfcrt at residues 72-76 was predominant (72.61%), but mutant and mixed alleles were also detected, of which CVIET (22.72%) was the most common. Mutant Pfcrt haplotypes were more frequent in patients from West Africa (26.92%), North Africa (25%), and Central Africa (21.93%). The number of cases of P. falciparum infections was small in Southeast Asia and Oceania, and these cases involved Pfcrt mutant type. For the k13 propeller gene, 26 samples presented 19 different point mutations, including eight nonsynonymous mutations (P441S, D464E, K503E, R561H, A578S, R622I, V650F, N694K). In addition, R561H, one of the validated SNPs in k13, was detected in one patient from Myanmar and one patient from Rwanda. A578S, although common in Africa, was found in only one patient from Cameroon. R622I was detected in one sample from Mozambique and one sample from Somalia. The genetic diversity of k13 was low in most regions of Africa and purifying selection was suggested by Tajima's D test. CONCLUSIONS:The frequency and spatial distributions of Pfcrt and k13 mutations associated with drug resistance were determined. Wild-type Pfcrt was dominant in Africa. Among k13 mutations correlated with delayed parasite clearance, only the R561H mutation was found in one case from Rwanda in Africa. Both Pfcrt and k13 mutations were detected in patients from Southeast Asia and Oceania. These findings provide insights into the molecular epidemiological profile of drug resistance markers in the study region.

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BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE:A variety of cytokines are involved in the incidence and development of bronchial asthma. This study was designed to reveal the relationship among genetic polymorphism of cytokine genes, expression levels of cytokines and incidence of bronchial asthma. METHODS:We analyzed 14 single nucleotide polymorphism loci in the 10 major cytokine genes plus plasma protein levels of 7 proteins in the bronchial asthma patients (n = 108) and the healthy population (n = 88) of the Han people in northern China. The polymorphism-based genotypes were identified by the sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction. The plasma protein levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunoassay. Bioinformatics analysis was applied to further data processing. RESULTS:Data presented here showed that the 6 polymorphism loci were significantly correlated with the incidence of asthma (p < 0.05). Two of them, IL-2 (-330) and IL-2 (+166), constituted a linkage disequilibrium block. The GG haplotype of this block gave a relatively higher correlation with asthma (p = 0.0767). The plasma protein levels of IgE, IL-6 and IL-1 beta correlated with a number of polymorphism loci tested (p < 0.05), of which IgE gave the most significant correlation. The plasma IL-10 and IL-12 levels of the patients in the asthma group were significantly lower than those of the healthy adults in the control group (p < 0.05), while IgE gave the opposite result (p < 0.0001). We constructed a prototype of the metabolic and regulatory network composed of bronchial asthma-related proteins. In this network, IL-6 and TNF-alpha, were found with a high degree (D = 343 and 235, respectively) and IL-1beta with a moderate degree of connection (D = 155). CONCLUSIONS:We have found that various degrees of correlation with cytokine genes and protein expression of single nucleotide polymorphism in bronchial asthma. IL-6 and IL-1beta appear to play important biological roles in the pathogenesis of asthma. During the analysis of correlation between genetic polymorphism and a complex disease, the effects of environmental factors should be taken into account. The information at the protein level should be fully developed and the bioinformatics techniques can be used for the comprehensive analysis, to have a deep understanding of molecular mechanisms of incidence and development of diseases.

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