BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVES:A pilot NHS dental contract was introduced in Northern Ireland between 2015 and 2016, which involved changing the method for paying general dental practitioners working in the NHS from fee-for-service (FFS) to capitation-based payments, providing an opportunity for a robust evaluation. We investigated the impact of a change in payment methods on clinical activity and the quality of care provided. DESIGN:A difference-in-difference (DiD) evaluation was applied to clinical activity data from pilot NHS dental practices in Northern Ireland compared to matched control NHS practices and applied to a questionnaire survey of patient-rated outcomes of health outcomes and care quality. We estimated the impact on access to care, treatment activity levels, practice finances and patient-rated outcomes of care of a change from FFS to a capitation-based system for 1 year, as well as the impact of a reversion back to FFS at the end of the pilot period. RESULTS:The monthly number of registered patients in the pilot practices increased more than the control practices during the capitation period, by 1.5 registrations per 1000 registered patients. The monthly reductions in the volumes of all treatments in the pilot practices during the capitation period were much larger than the control practices, with 175 fewer treatment items. All measures rapidly returned to baseline levels following reversion from capitation back to FFS. NHS income per month increased in pilot practices, by £5920 per month (calculated on FFS item cost basis) more than controls in the capitation period. The analysis of patient questionnaires suggest found that patients notice differences only in waiting times, skill-mix and number of radiographs, but not on other measures of healthcare process and quality. CONCLUSION:General dental practitioners working in the NHS respond rapidly and consistently to changes in provider payment methods. A move from FFS to a capitation-based system had little impact on access to care, but did produce large reductions in clinical activity and patient charge income. Patients noticed little change in the service they received. This shows that changes in remuneration contracts have the potential to meet policy goals, such as meeting the expectations of patients within a predictable cost envelope. However, it is unlikely that all policy goals can be met simply by changing payment methods. Therefore, work is also needed to identify and evaluate interventions that can complement changes in remuneration to achieve desirable outcomes.

背景与目标： 目标：2015年至2016年之间，北爱尔兰引入了NHS牙科试点合同，该合同涉及将NHS工作的普通牙科医生的支付方式从按服务付费（FFS）改为按人头支付的支付方式，从而为可靠的评估。我们调查了付款方式变更对临床活动和所提供护理质量的影响。
设计：将差异差异（DiD）评估应用于北爱尔兰NHS试点牙科实践的临床活动数据，与相匹配的对照NHS实践进行比较，并应用于对患者预后的健康结果和护理质量进行问卷调查。我们估算了从FFS改为基于人为的系统1年的护理对获得护理，治疗活动水平，实践财务状况和患者评级的护理结果的影响，以及在治疗后恢复为FFS的影响。试用期结束。
结果：在人为干预期间，试点实践中每月注册患者的数量增加了超过对照实践，每1000名注册患者中增加了1.5个注册。在人为戒断期间，试点实践中所有治疗量的每月减少量大大多于对照实践，减少了175个治疗项目。从人头设置恢复为FFS后​​，所有衡量指标均迅速恢复到基线水平。试点实践的每月NHS收入增加了5920英镑（按FFS项目成本计算），超过了停职期间的控制水平。对患者问卷的分析表明，患者仅在等待时间，技能组合和X射线照片数量上注意到差异，而在其他医疗过程和质量指标上则没有差异。
结论：在NHS工作的普通牙科医生对供应商付款方式的变化迅速且始终如一地做出了反应。从FFS过渡到基于人头的系统对获得护理的影响不大，但确实导致临床活动和患者收费收入的大幅减少。患者注意到他们所接受的服务几乎没有变化。这表明薪酬合同的变更有可能实现政策目标，例如在可预测的费用范围内满足患者的期望。但是，仅通过更改付款方式就不可能实现所有政策目标。因此，还需要开展工作来确定和评估可以补充薪酬变动以实现理想成果的干预措施。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

背景与目标： ：已经发布了对本文的修订，可以通过本文顶部的链接进行访问。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Soil improvement measures need to be ecologically credible, socially acceptable and economically affordable if they are to enter widespread use. However, in real world decision contexts not all measures can sufficiently meet these criteria. As such, developing, selecting and using appropriate tools to support more systematic appraisal of soil improvement measures in different decision-making contexts represents an important challenge. Tools differ in their aims, ranging from those focused on appraising issues of cost-effectiveness, wider ecosystem services impacts and adoption barriers/opportunities, to those seeking to foster participatory engagement and social learning. Despite the growing complexity of the decision-support tool landscape, comprehensive guidance for selecting tools that are best suited to appraise soil improvement measures, as well as those well-adapted to enable participatory deployment, has generally been lacking. We address this gap using the experience and survey data from an EU-funded project (RECARE: Preventing and REmediating degradation of soils in Europe through land CARE). RECARE applied different socio-cultural, biophysical and monetary appraisal tools to assess the costs, benefits and adoption of soil improvement measures across Europe. We focused on these appraisal tools and evaluated their performance against three broad attributes that gauge their differences and suitability for widespread deployment to aid stakeholder decision making in soil management. Data were collected using an online questionnaire administered to RECARE researchers. Although some tools worked better than others across case studies, the information collated was used to provide guiding strategies for choosing appropriate tools, considering resources and data availability, characterisation of uncertainty, and the purpose for which a specific soil improvement measure is being developed or promoted. This paper provides insights to others working in practical soil improvement contexts as to why getting the tools right matters. It demonstrates how use of the right tools can add value to decision-making in ameliorating soil threats, supporting the sustainable management of the services that our soil ecosystems provide.

背景与目标： ：土壤改良措施要广泛使用，就必须在生态上可信，在社会上可以接受并且在经济上可以承受。但是，在现实世界的决策环境中，并非所有措施都能充分满足这些标准。因此，开发，选择和使用适当的工具来支持在不同决策环境下更系统地评估土壤改良措施是一项重要的挑战。工具的目的各不相同，从侧重于评估成本效益，更广泛的生态系统服务影响和采用障碍/机会的工具，到旨在促进参与式参与和社会学习的工具。尽管决策支持工具领域的复杂性日益增加，但总体上缺乏用于选择最适合评估土壤改良措施的工具以及适合进行参与式部署的工具的综合指南。我们利用欧盟资助的项目（RECARE：通过土地护理防止和修复欧洲土壤退化）的经验和调查数据来解决这一差距。 RECARE应用了不同的社会文化，生物物理和货币评估工具来评估整个欧洲土壤改良措施的成本，收益和采用情况。我们专注于这些评估工具，并根据三个广泛的属性评估了它们的性能，这些属性衡量了它们的差异以及广泛部署的适用性，以帮助利益相关者在土壤管理中做出决策。使用对RECARE研究人员进行管理的在线调查表收集数据。尽管在案例研究中某些工具比其他工具更有效，但整理的信息用于提供选择适当工具，考虑资源和数据可用性，不确定性特征以及制定或推广特定土壤改良措施的目的的指导策略。 。本文为在土壤改良实践中工作的其他人提供了见解，说明了正确使用工具的重要性。它展示了使用正确的工具如何在减轻土壤威胁，为我们的土壤生态系统提供的服务的可持续管理提供支持的过程中为决策增加价值。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND:Characterisation of risk groups who may benefit from pneumococcal vaccination is essential for the generation of recommendations and policy. METHODS:We reviewed the literature to provide information on the incidence and risk of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in at-risk children in Europe and North America. The PubMed database was searched using predefined search terms and inclusion/exclusion criteria for papers reporting European or North American data on the incidence or risk of IPD in children with underlying medical conditions. RESULTS:Eighteen references were identified, 11 from North America and 7 from Europe, with heterogeneous study methods, periods and populations. The highest incidence was seen in US children positive for human immunodeficiency virus infection, peaking at 4167 per 100,000 patient-years in 2000. Studies investigating changes in incidence over time reported decreases in the incidence of IPD between the late 1990s and early 2000s. The highest risk of IPD was observed in children with haematological cancers or immunosuppression. Overall, data on IPD in at-risk children were limited, lacking incidence data for a wide range of predisposing conditions. There was, however, a clear decrease in the incidence of IPD in at-risk children after the introduction of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine into immunisation programmes, as previously demonstrated in the general population. CONCLUSION:Despite the heterogeneity of the studies identified, the available data show a substantial incidence of IPD in at-risk children, particularly those who are immunocompromised. Further research is needed to determine the true risk of IPD in at-risk children, particularly in the post-PCV period, and to understand the benefits of vaccination and optimal vaccination schedules.

背景与目标： 背景：可能从肺炎球菌疫苗接种中受益的风险人群的表征对于产生建议和政策至关重要。
方法：我们回顾了文献，以提供有关欧洲和北美高危儿童的侵袭性肺炎球菌疾病（IPD）的发生率和风险的信息。使用预定义的搜索词和纳入/排除标准对PubMed数据库进行了搜索，以检索报告欧洲或北美患有基础疾病的儿童中IPD发生率或风险的数据。
结果：共确定了18篇参考文献，其中11篇来自北美，7篇来自欧洲，其研究方法，时期和人群各不相同。在人类免疫缺陷病毒感染呈阳性的美国儿童中发生率最高，在2000年达到峰值，每10万患者年中有4167名。调查随时间变化的研究报告说，在1990年代末至2000年代初，IPD发生率下降。在患有血液系统癌症或免疫抑制的儿童中，发生IPD的风险最高。总体而言，高危儿童的IPD数据有限，缺乏各种易患病情况的发病率数据。但是，将7价肺炎球菌结合疫苗引入免疫接种计划后，高危儿童IPD发生率明显下降，这在以前的一般人群中已得到证实。
结论：尽管已确定研究的异质性，但现有数据显示高危儿童，特别是免疫受损儿童的IPD发生率很高。需要进一步的研究来确定高危儿童中IPD的真正风险，尤其是在PCV后时期，并了解疫苗接种的好处和最佳的疫苗接种时间表。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE:A variety of cytokines are involved in the incidence and development of bronchial asthma. This study was designed to reveal the relationship among genetic polymorphism of cytokine genes, expression levels of cytokines and incidence of bronchial asthma. METHODS:We analyzed 14 single nucleotide polymorphism loci in the 10 major cytokine genes plus plasma protein levels of 7 proteins in the bronchial asthma patients (n = 108) and the healthy population (n = 88) of the Han people in northern China. The polymorphism-based genotypes were identified by the sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction. The plasma protein levels were determined by enzyme-linked immunoassay. Bioinformatics analysis was applied to further data processing. RESULTS:Data presented here showed that the 6 polymorphism loci were significantly correlated with the incidence of asthma (p < 0.05). Two of them, IL-2 (-330) and IL-2 (+166), constituted a linkage disequilibrium block. The GG haplotype of this block gave a relatively higher correlation with asthma (p = 0.0767). The plasma protein levels of IgE, IL-6 and IL-1 beta correlated with a number of polymorphism loci tested (p < 0.05), of which IgE gave the most significant correlation. The plasma IL-10 and IL-12 levels of the patients in the asthma group were significantly lower than those of the healthy adults in the control group (p < 0.05), while IgE gave the opposite result (p < 0.0001). We constructed a prototype of the metabolic and regulatory network composed of bronchial asthma-related proteins. In this network, IL-6 and TNF-alpha, were found with a high degree (D = 343 and 235, respectively) and IL-1beta with a moderate degree of connection (D = 155). CONCLUSIONS:We have found that various degrees of correlation with cytokine genes and protein expression of single nucleotide polymorphism in bronchial asthma. IL-6 and IL-1beta appear to play important biological roles in the pathogenesis of asthma. During the analysis of correlation between genetic polymorphism and a complex disease, the effects of environmental factors should be taken into account. The information at the protein level should be fully developed and the bioinformatics techniques can be used for the comprehensive analysis, to have a deep understanding of molecular mechanisms of incidence and development of diseases.

背景与目标： 背景与目的：多种细胞因子参与支气管哮喘的发生和发展。本研究旨在揭示细胞因子基因遗传多态性，细胞因子表达水平和支气管哮喘发生率之间的关系。
方法：我们分析了中国北方汉族支气管哮喘患者（n = 108）和健康人群（n = 88）中10个主要细胞因子基因的14个单核苷酸多态性位点以及7种蛋白的血浆蛋白水平。通过序列特异性引物-聚合酶链反应鉴定了基于多态性的基因型。通过酶联免疫测定法测定血浆蛋白水平。生物信息学分析被应用于进一步的数据处理。
结果：这里显示的数据表明6个多态性位点与哮喘的发生率显着相关（p <0.05）。 IL-2（-330）和IL-2（166）中的两个构成了连锁不平衡嵌段。该区域的GG单倍型与哮喘的相关性相对较高（p = 0.0767）。 IgE，IL-6和IL-1β的血浆蛋白水平与测试的多个多态性基因座相关（p <0.05），其中IgE的相关性最为显着。哮喘组患者的血浆IL-10和IL-12水平显着低于对照组健康成年人（p <0.05），而IgE则相反（p <0.0001）。我们构建了由支气管哮喘相关蛋白组成的代谢和调节网络的原型。在该网络中，发现IL-6和TNF-α的程度较高（分别为D = 343和235），而IL-1beta的连接程度为中等（D = 155）。
结论：我们发现支气管哮喘与细胞因子基因和单核苷酸多态性的蛋白质表达有不同程度的相关性。 IL-6和IL-1beta在哮喘的发病机理中似乎起着重要的生物学作用。在分析遗传多态性与复杂疾病之间的相关性时，应考虑环境因素的影响。应该充分开发蛋白质水平的信息，并可以使用生物信息学技术进行综合分析，以深刻理解疾病的发病和发展的分子机制。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :A subsurface thermohaline front semi-permanently formed in association with near-bottom cyclonic circulation in the northern East China Sea was newly found from detailed hydrographic data collected during two cruises in February 2017 (winter) and April 2018 (spring) along with supplementary satellite remote sensing and historical hydrographic data. An alternate intruding frontal structure in water properties was observed across the cyclonic circulation in both seasons as formed by two contrasting water masses-low-temperature and low-salinity (i.e., low spiciness) water transported by the East China Sea Current and high-temperature and high-salinity (i.e., high spiciness) water transported by the Tsushima Warm Current. Consistent structures were confirmed from current observations during the two cruises, historical hydrographic observations, and satellite altimetry-derived sea surface height and surface frontal structure, indicative of retroflection of the Cheju Warm Current as deemed by the seasonal development of thermal stratification in spring. Our results reveal significant heat and material exchanges between the open Pacific and the broad shelf, particularly via diapycnal mixing and cross-front transports associated with across-front flow and cyclonic circulation, in the northern East China Sea.

背景与目标： ：在2017年2月（冬季）和2018年4月（春季）的两次航行中收集的详细水文数据中，新发现了与东海北部近底气旋循环半永久结合形成的地下热盐线前体。遥感和历史水文数据。在两个季节的整个气旋循环中，观察到了交替的侵入性锋面结构，这是由东海洋流和高温输送的两个相反的水团形成的，即低温和低盐度（即低辣度）水形成的。以及对马暖流输送的高盐度（即高辣度）水。两次航行中的当前观测，历史水文观测以及卫星测高仪得出的海面高度和表面锋面结构都证实了一致的结构，这表明了春季热分层的季节性发展表明了济州暖流的逆转。我们的研究结果揭示了东太平洋北部太平洋与大陆架之间存在大量的热和物质交换，特别是通过二叠氮混合和跨前沿流动和旋风循环相关的跨前沿运输。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This article surveys the botanical composition of 40 Muslim graveyards in northern Israel, accompanied by an ethnobotanical study of the folkloristic traditions of the use of these plants in cemeteries. Three groups of plants were found to be repeated systematically and were also recognized for their ritual importance: aromatics herbs (especially Salvia fruticosa and Rosmarinus officinalis), white flowered plants (mainly Narcissus tazetta, Urginea maritima, Iris spp. and Pancratium spp.) and Cupressus sempervirens as the leading cemetery tree. As endemic use we can indicate the essential role of S. fruticosa as the main plant used in all human rites of passage symbolizing the human life cycle. The rosemary is of European origin while the use of basil is of Indian influence. The use of white flowers as cemeteries plants reflects an old European influence and almost the same species are used or their congeners. Most of the trees and shrubs that are planted in Muslim cemeteries in Israel have the same use in ancient as well in modern European cultures. In conclusion, our findings on the occurrence of plants in graveyards reflect the geographic situation of Israel as a crossroads in the cultural arena between Asia and Europe. Most of the traditions are common to the whole Middle East showing high relatedness to the classical world as well as to the present-day Europe.

背景与目标： ：本文调查了以色列北部40个穆斯林墓地的植物学组成，并进行了民族植物学研究，研究了在墓地使用这些植物的民俗传统。发现三类植物可以系统地重复，并且在仪式上也很重要：芳香植物（特别是丹参和迷迭香），白花植物（主要是水仙，水母，虹膜和Pancratium。）和柏（Cupressus sempervirens）为领先的公墓树。作为特有的使用，我们可以指出金黄色葡萄球菌是在所有象征人类生命周期的人类通行仪式中使用的主要植物的重要作用。迷迭香是欧洲起源的，而罗勒的使用则具有印度的影响力。将白花用作墓地植物反映了欧洲的古老影响，几乎使用相同的物种或它们的同类。以色列穆斯林公墓中种植的大多数树木和灌木在古代和现代欧洲文化中都有相同的用途。总而言之，我们对墓地中植物生长的发现反映了以色列作为亚洲和欧洲之间文化交流的十字路口的地理状况。大多数传统是整个中东地区共有的，与古典世界以及当今的欧洲都息息相关。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This paper reviews the early detection and prevention strategies which have been employed in Europe for the control of mycotoxin contamination of food in the context of a hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) framework. The critical control points (CCPs) in the whole food chain where mycotoxins such as trichothecenes and ochratoxins are important have been identified. Ecological studies on the effect of environmental factors which are marginal for growth and mycotoxin production have been identified for Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum (deoxynivlenol production), and for Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus ochraceus (ochratoxin production) in relation to cereal production and for A. carbonarius in relation to grapes and wine production (ochratoxin formation). To minimise the entry of these mycotoxins into the food chain, effective and rapid diagnostic tools are required to monitor the CCPs effectively. To this end the potential use of molecular imprinted polymers, lateral flow devices and molecular-based techniques for the rapid detection and quantification of the mycotoxigenic moulds or their toxins have also been developed.

背景与目标： ：本文回顾了在危害分析关键控制点（HACCP）框架下在欧洲用于控制食品中霉菌毒素污染的早期发现和预防策略。已经确定了在整个食物链中至关重要的控制点（CCP），其中霉菌毒素如曲霉毒素和曲霉毒素很重要。对镰刀菌和禾谷镰刀菌（脱氧萘酚生产），青霉青霉和och曲霉（och曲霉毒素生产）与谷物生产和A相关的环境因素对生长和霉菌毒素产生影响的生态研究已经确定。与葡萄和葡萄酒生产有关的碳含量（och曲毒素的形成）。为了最大程度地减少这些真菌毒素进入食物链，需要有效且快速的诊断工具来有效监控CCP。为此，还已经开发出分子印迹聚合物，侧向流动装置和基于分子的技术用于快速检测和定量产毒霉菌霉菌或其毒素的潜在用途。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: OBJECTIVE:To examine the association of breakfast consumption with objectively measured and self-reported physical activity, sedentary time and physical fitness. DESIGN:The HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) Cross-Sectional Study. Breakfast consumption was assessed by two non-consecutive 24 h recalls and by a 'Food Choices and Preferences' questionnaire. Physical activity, sedentary time and physical fitness components (cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness and speed/agility) were measured and self-reported. Socio-economic status was assessed by questionnaire. SETTING:Ten European cities. SUBJECTS:Adolescents (n 2148; aged 12·5-17·5 years). RESULTS:Breakfast consumption was not associated with measured or self-reported physical activity. However, 24 h recall breakfast consumption was related to measured sedentary time in males and females; although results were not confirmed when using other methods to assess breakfast patterns or sedentary time. Breakfast consumption was not related to muscular fitness and speed/agility in males and females. However, male breakfast consumers had higher cardiorespiratory fitness compared with occasional breakfast consumers and breakfast skippers, while no differences were observed in females. Overall, results were consistent using different methods to assess breakfast consumption or cardiorespiratory fitness (all P ≤ 0·005). In addition, both male and female breakfast skippers (assessed by 24 h recall) were less likely to have high measured cardiorespiratory fitness compared with breakfast consumers (OR = 0·33; 95% CI 0·18, 0·59 and OR = 0·56; 95%CI 0·32, 0·98, respectively). Results persisted across methods. CONCLUSIONS:Skipping breakfast does not seem to be related to physical activity, sedentary time or muscular fitness and speed/agility as physical fitness components in European adolescents; yet it is associated with both measured and self-reported cardiorespiratory fitness, which extends previous findings.

背景与目标： 目的：研究早餐摄入量与客观测量和自我报告的体育锻炼，久坐时间和身体健康状况之间的关系。
设计：HELENA（欧洲青少年饮食营养健康生活方式）跨部门研究。通过两次不连续的24小时召回和“食物选择与偏好”调查表评估了早餐的消耗量。测量并自我报告身体活动，久坐时间和身体健康成分（心肺健康，肌肉健康和速度/敏捷度）。通过问卷调查评估社会经济状况。
地点：十个欧洲城市。
对象：青少年（n 2148；年龄12·5-17·5岁）。
结果：早餐消费与测量或自我报告的体育活动无关。然而，回忆起24小时的早餐消费与男性和女性的久坐时间有关。尽管在使用其他方法评估早餐方式或久坐时间时未确认结果。早餐消耗与男性和女性的肌肉健康状况和速度/敏捷度无关。然而，男性早餐消费者比偶尔的早餐消费者和早餐队长有更高的心肺适应性，而女性则没有差异。总体而言，使用不同的方法评估早餐摄入量或心肺健康状况的结果是一致的（所有P≤0·005）。此外，男性和女性早餐船长（通过24小时回忆进行评估）与早餐消费者相比，测得的心肺健康水平较低（OR = 0·33； 95％CI 0·18、0·59和OR = 0 ·56； 95％CI分别为0·32、0·98）。各种方法的结果仍然存在。
结论：跳跳早餐似乎与欧洲青少年的体育锻炼，久坐时间或肌肉健康以及速度/敏捷度与身体健康无关。然而，它与测量的和自我报告的心肺适应性都相关，从而扩展了先前的发现。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Marteilia refringens is one of the most significant pathogens of bivalve molluscs. Previous sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene of M. refringens isolates derived from the infected mussels (Mytilus edulis and Mytilus galloprovinciallis) and the oyster (Ostrea edulis) in Europe did not reveal genetic polymorphisms despite indications from epizootiological data that distinct types may exist. We investigated the existence of polymorphisms in the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA genes. The sequences of this region proved to be clearly dimorphic among Marteilia from five sampling sites. The distribution of the two genetic types, named "O" and "M", appeared to be linked to the host species, oysters and mussels, respectively. We therefore support the recognition of two species of Marteilia in Europe and propose that the "O" type corresponds to M. refringens and the "M" type to M. maurini.

背景与目标： ：Marterilia refringens是双壳软体动物最重要的病原体之一。尽管来自流行病学数据表明可能存在不同类型的致病性欧洲分枝杆菌小亚基核糖体RNA基因的先前测序，该分离物来自受感染的贻贝（Mytilus edulis和Mytilus galloprovinciallis）和牡蛎（Ostrea edulis）。 。我们调查了核糖体RNA基因的内部转录间隔区中多态性的存在。在五个采样点的Marteilia中，该区域的序列被证明是明显二态的。两种遗传类型的分布，分别命名为“ O”和“ M”，似乎分别与宿主物种牡蛎和贻贝有关。因此，我们支持欧洲对两种Marteilia物种的认可，并建议“ O”类型对应于致敏分支杆菌（M. refringens），“ M”类型对应于M. maurini。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :Estimates of iron status in a random sample (218 men, 283 women) of the Northern Ireland population (aged 18-64 years) were obtained from blood measurements. Multiple criteria were used to determine Fe deficiency and body Fe stores were calculated as an index of Fe sufficiency. Three distinct groups with respect to Fe stores were identified on the basis of sex and menstrual status. Estimates of body Fe stores, mean (and SD), were 13.4 (SD 5.97), 5.3 (SD 6.09) and 8.5 (SD 6.72) mM for men, woman aged 18-44 years and women aged 45-64 years respectively. The prevalence of Fe-deficiency anaemia was low, ranging from 0.5% in men to 6.6% and 4.6% in the younger and older women respectively. The prevalence of Fe deficiency was low in men (1.4%) and older women (5.7%) rising to 11.0% in the younger group of women. The disproportionately elevated serum ferritin relative to transferrin saturation supported the suggestion that chronic inflammation might have influenced Fe status measurements in men and older women.

背景与目标： ：从血液测量中获得北爱尔兰人口（18-64岁）的随机样本（218例男性，283例女性）中铁的状况估计值。使用多个标准来确定铁缺乏症，并计算体内铁存储量作为铁充足性的指标。根据性别和月经状况，确定了关于铁存储的三个不同的类别。男性，18-44岁的女性和45-64岁的女性的体内铁存储量的平均值（和SD）分别为13.4（SD 5.97），5.3（SD 6.09）和8.5（SD 6.72）mM。缺铁性贫血的患病率很低，从男性的0.5％到年轻女性和老年女性的6.6％和4.6％。男性中铁缺乏症的患病率较低（1.4％），老年妇女中铁缺乏症的患病率（5.7％）上升至11.0％。相对于转铁蛋白饱和度而言，血清铁蛋白的升高不成比例地支持了这样的建议，即慢性炎症可能已经影响了男性和老年女性的铁状态测量。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :This article synthesizes diverse official reports, statistics, and scientific papers that present demographic, economic, environmental, and social trends impacting on the health and quality of life of citizens living in European cities. A literature review led to the identification of some key challenges including an aging society, migration flows, inequalities in health, global change, and risk behaviors that should be addressed in order to promote urban health. Other challenges, such as food production and consumption, are also relevant, but not included. Cities that have participated in one or more of the phases of the WHO European Healthy Cities Network have implemented a number of policies, programs, and measures to deal with the challenges discussed in this article. Some contributions are presented to illustrate how health and quality of life in urban areas can be promoted by local authorities.

背景与目标： ：本文综合了各种官方报告，统计数据和科学论文，介绍了人口统计，经济，环境和社会趋势，这些趋势对居住在欧洲城市的公民的健康和生活质量产生了影响。文献综述得出了一些关键挑战，包括老龄化社会，移民流动，健康不平等，全球变化以及为促进城市健康而应解决的风险行为。其他挑战，例如粮食生产和消费，也具有相关性，但并未包括在内。参加了世卫组织欧洲健康城市网络一个或多个阶段的城市已经实施了许多政策，规划和措施来应对本文中讨论的挑战。提出了一些意见，以说明地方当局如何促进城市地区的健康和生活质量。

BACKGROUND & AIMS: :After 1970 the preexisting gap in population health between democratic Europe and communist countries became even more prominent. While in the democratic Europe there was a progressive rise in life expectancy associated with the decline in ischaemic heart disease (IHD), the trend on the other side of the iron curtain was exactly reverse. After the fall of communism in 1989 population health in the post-communist central Europe (CE) rapidly signalled a favourable recovery. This biphasic trend in post-communist countries is very remarkable. Most remarkably the decline in IHD mortality started soon after the demise of totality, even before the modernization of health care (new more effective medications and diagnostic technology), public campaign against smoking and improved supply of protective nutrients got chance to attain an important role. The decades-long psychosocial depression of communism was rapidly replaced with a promise of a better future. It is generally accepted that psychosocial factors are powerfool tools in the pathogenesis of IHD.

背景与目标： ：1970年以后，欧洲民主国家和共产主义国家之间在人口健康方面的先天不足变得更加突出。尽管在民主的欧洲，与缺血性心脏病（IHD）下降相关的预期寿命正在逐步增加，但铁幕的另一面却恰好相反。 1989年共产主义垮台后，中共后欧洲国家（CE）的人口健康状况迅速好转。后共产主义国家的这种两相性趋势非常显着。最显着的是，IHD死亡率的下降在总体灭绝后不久就开始了，甚至在医疗保健现代化（新的更有效的药物和诊断技术）出现之前，公众反吸烟运动和保护性营养素供应的增加也有机会发挥重要作用。共产主义长达数十年的社会心理压抑迅速被美好未来的希望所取代。人们普遍认为，心理社会因素是IHD发病机制中的傻瓜工具。